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CATTLE FEEDING 



WITH 



SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, MOLASSES 



SUGAR BEET RESIDUUM 



LEWIS S. WARE, 

EDITOR "THE SUGAR BEET," AUTHOR OF "SUGAR BEET SEED," ETC. 

FELLOW OF L'ECOLE CENTRALE DES ARTS, MANUFACTURES ET AGRICULTURE, PARIS; 

MEMBER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; ASSOCIATION DES CHEMISTES ; 

ASSOCIATION DES CHEMISTES BELGE, ETC., ETC., ETC. 



ILLUSTRATED 



PHILADELPHIA BOOK CO., 

PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL BOOKS, 

15 SOUTH NINTH STREET, 

1902. 



THE CIBRAfJY OF 
OONf^RESS, 

"^ vo Copitd Reosived 

OCT, 25 19f^2 

OUASS a. XXa No. 
COPY S. 



Copyright by 
PHILADELPHIA BOOK CO. 

1902. 



Printed at the 

WICKERSHAM PRINTING HOUSE, 

53 and 55 North Queen Street, 

Lancaster, Pa., U. S. A. 



DR. HARVEY W. WILEY, 

Chief Chemist of the U. S. Depaetment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 

my friend and co-worker, 

who during the past twenty years 

has given his official and scientific support 

toward the practicai/ realization of the introduction of the 

beet-sugar industry into the united states, 

this work is respectfully dedicated by 

The Author. 



PREFACE. 



The author for many years past has felt convinced that the 
future success of the American beet sugar industry would 
depend upon the introduction of certain principles of economy 
that are not entirely in accordance with our customs. The 
utilization of waste is an issue that always appeals to countries 
where labor is cheap and the struggle of life is hard. In the 
United States it is only within the past two years that any 
serious attention has been given to feeding the residuum cos- 
settes to cattle or finding some use for the molasses remaining 
after the campaign has ended. There is no doubt but that 
a large number of the European beet sugar factories would 
have long since ceased to exist had the residuums, pulp and 
molasses not been sold and thus become the sole money returns 
for the investors. In years when general prosperity prevails 
this income is that much more to be added to the general profits 
which frequentl}' during a single campaign reach a total of 80 
per cent, on the invested capital. 

In 1874 when the beet sugar agitation in the United States 
was begun, not a single acre was planted in beets and no beet 
sugar factory was working in this country ; the seeds imported 
were distributed in many states and the resulting beets were ana- 
lyzed. There remained on the farmers' hands several tons of 
beets which had at first to be paid for out of the personal 
pocket of the writer: it was urged that a reasonable trial be 
given to these roots for feeding purposes ; this was done, and 
excellent results followed. Subsequently, the seeds of many 
varieties, which were gratuitously distributed, had no difficulty 
in finding some willing tillers to give them a fair trial. This 
led to solutions of difficult issues among farmers who had fur- 
nished beets to several of the early Canadian beet sugar fac- 

( V ) 



VI PREFACE. 

tories, when the inferior quality of the beets caused their 
refusal at the factory ; discouragement followed and many of 
the farmers cancelled their contracts and turned their attention 
in other directions. It was not long before it was realized that 
while $4.00 to $5.00 per ton could not be obtained at the factory 
for roots testing less than 10 per cent, sugar, on the other hand 
for feeding purposes they would be worth at least $3.50 as 
shown by the increase in milk, butter, etc. Some farmers have 
gone so far in this direction as to devote a certain area to beets 
every year since that time, while the Canadian factories that 
were Avorking in 1883 have now ceased to exist. During the 
interval of twenty years sugar beets have continued to be fed 
with excellent results in certain districts of Canada. In the 
United States root feeding to cattle is not as general as it should 
be and the farmers have thus wasted an opportunity. Gen- 
eral information in regard to pulp feeding has been wanting, 
so it was considered urgent to visit most of the European farms 
and examine the question on the spot, and this present volume 
has been the result of that investigation. Of recent years in 
Continental Europe molasses feeding to cattle has gained in 
popularity. All the available documents on the subject in both 
French and German have been consulted and the practical re- 
sults where this residuum has been regularly fed have been per- 
sonall}' observed. Sugar may be had at such a low figure that 
it is interesting to examine just within what limit it also may 
be used for cattle. The theor}' of cattle feeding and requisites 
for success as considered from the standpoint of the leading 
German authorities such as Wolff and Kiihn, have been studied 
in detail, also the theories of many of the French savants upon 
the same subject. As the U. S. Department of Agriculture at 
Washington and the numerous experiment stations of the 
country have devoted considerable time to cattle feeding, their 
publications have been consulted and from them certain conclu- 
sions have been drawn that are not always in strict accordance 
with the theories of some of their experts. The results of the 
writer's personal practical experience is also given in these pages. 
As many technical terms are used there is given as Part VI a 
special chapter of definitions and technical considerations, 



PREFACE. Vll 

which enables any person without special scientific training to 
thoroughly understand the entire question discussed. The main 
object in view is to prevail upon farmers to use either sugar 
beets, sugar, or sugar beet residuum in its varied forms; by so 
doing they will have within their reach a source of profit 

hitherto ignored. 

L. S.. Ware. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 
General Considekations on Cattle Feeding. ^^^^ 

Former modes; The cow formerly considered of secondary importance in 
general agricultural economy; Forage for cattle on the average Euro- 
pean farm; Eesults realized not commensurate with the outlay 1 

Present modes; Work of the agricultural chemist and of the chemists con- 
nected with the sugar factories; Hay as the standard of the nutritive 
value of forage in general; Constituents of fodder; Constituents for the 
production of muscular tissues 2 

Direct action in the formation of fat; Additional factor towards the 
supply of non-nitrogenous substances; Standards of feeding; Nutritive 
value of the nitrogenous substances; How the best results are obtained. 3 

Importance of fat; Role of cellulose; Importance of salt; Role of water... 4 

Variable ration; Most advantageous condition for the utilization of the 
nutritious elements of a forage; Facts to be remembered in fattening of 
live stock; Hygienic conditions; Temperature of the stable; Order 
of meals ^ 

Importance of regular feeding for cows; Production of milk; Ration for 
working animals; Rations for stall-fed animals 6 

Conclusions; How fodders may be made as profitable to farmers as the 
cultivation of cereals; Special advantages offered by the beet; Negative 
results of stall-feeding; Advantages of the pulp combination in the 
animal ration ' 

Results obtained in feeding scrub cattle with cossettes misleading 8 



PART FIRST. 
Feeding and Fattening Yol'ng Steees and Cattle. 
Theoretical considerations relating to the formation of fat; Principal 
groups of nutrients from which the fat is derived; Determination of the 

problem how domesticated ruminating animals store up fat 9 

Kiihn's experiments in reference to the percentage of fat furnished in 
fodder which is deposited in the body; Examinations as to the influence 
of carbohvdrates on the formation of fat; Origin of the fat formed; 

(ix) 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Effect of too much water in fodder; Influence of the ambient tempera- 
ture of the stable; Importance of the size of the body 10 

Bleeding animals to be fattened; Explanation of the influence of carbo- 
hydrates on the production and deposit of fat; What is shown by the 
general laws for the formation or production of flesh and fat 11 

Theoretical considerations respecting flesh formation ; Early experiments 
having in view the production of flesh; Amount of protein decomposed 
from the body when the ration has been properly combined; Protein 
needed to sustain life in a normal condition of health 12 

Effect of salt in reasonable amounts; Methods for economizing the quan- 
tity of albumin so as to obtain the maximum meat production; Stoh- 
mann's experiments; Effect of an addition of sugar in the shape of 
molasses or beet pulp to fodder 13 

Consumption of carbohydi^ates by ruminating animals; General outline of 
the requisites for the practical and theoretical feeding and fattening of 
young cattle and steers; Wrong impression as to feeding semi-starved 
animals upon i-ations consisting of beet-sugar factory residuum products 
combined with other forages 14 

Difiiculties contended with and experiments; Object of the consumption 
of food before a growing animal is weaned; Soxhlet's experiments; 
Feeding calves after being weaned 16 

Water and its consumption by steers; Daily weighing; Varied feeds 
recommended; Essentials in fattening 16 

Requisites for success; Duration of the fattening period; Advantages of 
sugar-beet residuum; Requisites for successful fattening; Importance 
of forcing animals to eat the greatest possible amount; Periods of feed- 
ing 17 

Standards during the various periods of feeding; Success depends upon 
practical experience 18 

Average cost for one pound increase in live weight; Money advantages of 
beet residuum; Needs for shipping facilities; Preparations for shipping 
fattened steers; Precautions in the use of s-alt in steer feeding 19 

Essentials for success; Comforts for the steer to be fattened; Prof. Henry 
upon this subject; Feeding growing steers 20 

Idea of the progress of the fattening to be obtained from the droppings; 
Prof. Henry on this subject; Milch cow feeding; General remarks 21 

Combination of concentrates with roughage; Capacity of the milch cow to 
adapt itself to varied feeding; General interest in the question of feed- 
ing milch cows 22 

Amount of milk a cow should yield; Dairying based on maternity of the 
cow, explained by Prof. Henry; Two sorts of milch cows 23 

Considerations about milk and milking; Difference in the quantity and 
composition of milk; Influence of ihe time of milking upon the com- 
position and quality of the milk; The true and only basis for the sale 
of milk 24 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

Calving cow, and its needs; Calf feeding; Artificial means a mistake 25 

Rations and feeds; Use of cob meal and corn in preference to whole ear 
corn; Advantages of certain cotton-seed meals; Influence of feeds upon 
butter and milk 26 

Influence of certain feeding stuflfs upon the flavor of butter; Importance 
of the influence of inorganic substances on the quality and quantity of 
milk; Henneberg and Stohmann's experiments 27 

Influence of fodders upon the flavor of milk; Theoretical considerations; 
Elimination of milk from the blood; Elaboration of milk from the 
colostrum 28 

What milk in reality is; Importance of the composition and size of the 
milk glands; Abnormal development of the udder not a sure indication 
of the possibility of an abundant flow of milk 29 

Advantages of albumin; Amount of digestible protein needed; Efiiect of an 
ino'ease in the amount of fat of a ration on the flow of milk; Wolff on 
this subject 30 

Experiments of Kiihn and of Weiske; Essentials for successful dairying; 
Shelter, and its importance; Amount of air required 31 

Comfort and ease for the cow; Stables; Breed and kind of cow; Cows 
should have a trial; Continued attention; Kindness 32 

Feeding; Time of feeding; Successful cossette feeding; Excessive feeding; 
Difficulties in feeding 33 

Stable feeding and exercise; Feeding with a view of butter production; 
Feeding according to records; Question of labor 34 

Bacteria; W^ater in feeding; Influence of water upon food consumption ... 35 

Influence of water on protein consumption; Water drunk and its influence. 36 

EflTect of water when given in excess; Loss of water per diem; Diarrhoea 
caused by excessively diluted rations; Essentials of good water; Salt ... 37 

Mistake in starting a dairy; Co-operative methods; Calculation of rations 
for milch cows; Preliminary remarks 38 

Manurial value of the droppings; Difference in opinion as to standard 
rations 39 

Composition of one hundred rations for dairy cows in different parts of the 
United States; Requirements of American cows as compared with 
European 40 

The standard adopted; Advantage of the- use of special tables for com- 
puting rations for farm animals; Faulty rations 41 

Composition of ration No. 1, fed to California dairy cows; Composition of 
ration No. 2, fed to California dairy cows 42 

Manner of calculating a ration; Composition of suppositious ration for 
dairy cows 43 

Modification of above ration; Further modification of above ration 44 

Sheep feeding; General considerations; Impulse to sheep raising in the 
United States given by beet pulp utilization 45 

Importance of having the ewes well looked after; Advantages of com- 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

parative breed tests; Mistake of shearing during feeding; Craig's 

experiments 46 

Surprising results in sheep fattening; Beet cossettes and the wool; Sheep 

characteristics 47 

Requisite feeding space and other essentials; Prof. Henry's views 48 

Importance of sheep selection; Sheep fattening 49 

Oats as a ration; Lands for pasturage suited to sheep; Winter feeding 50 

Health of a sucking lamb; Weaning lambs 51 

Feeding working animals; Theoretical considerations; Volt's experi- 
ments; Hanneberg's experiments upon sheep 52 

Function of protein; Equivalents for 100 parts of fat 53 

Production of muscular energy by albumin in the fodder; Facts to be con- 
sidered in the production of work; Causes of gouty and rheumatic ten- 
dencies 54 

Production of work from foods, and Sanson's results in this direction 55 

Working oxen and cows; Ration of an animal doing work 56 

Rations in general; General remarks; Variation in the daily ration with 

the ambient temperature 57 

Standards; Basis of all standard rations 58 

Variation in standards; Variation in ration 59 

Appetizing rations; Distribution of rations 60 

Commercial value of fodders; All existing modes of estimation of value 

very empirical; Money mode of valuation 61 

Difference in the nutritive money value as admitted in the United States 

from that adopted by Kiihn; Purchasing feeds 62 

Rules proposed by the New Ycrk Agricultural Experiment Station; Cost 

of rations 63 



PART SECOND. 

Feeding Beets to Cattle. 

Preliminary remarks; Advantages of a succulent ration with corn 64 

Preparation of beets before feeding; Steaming or cooking 65 

Vertical and horizontal section of Leduc's beet-steaming pits; Steaming 

process combined with fermentation 66 

Arrangement of the pits and detail of chimney 67 

Advantages of a reasonable fermentation 68 

Maceration and its object; Comparative experiments; Beets and pulp 

compared 69 

Experiments upon sheep; Sugar-beets and mangels compared 70 

Comparison of Tankard and sugar-beets 71 

Comparative increase in weight of sheep fed with Tankard and with 

sugar-beets; Size of root for cattle-feed 72 



CONTENTS. Xin 

PAGE 

Plant food taken up by mangels and sugar-beets 73 

Sugar-beets compaj-ed with rutabagas; Comparative analyses of a rutabaga 
and a sugar-beet 74 

Efforts to create a semi-sugar-beet; Comparative yields of forage and 
semi-sugar-beets 75 

Green corn fodder vs. sugar-beets for cattle feed; Green corn ensilage; 
Exhausting effects of green corn upon the soil 76 

Plant food absorbed by one ton of sugar-beets and green corn; Plant food 
absorbed to the acre by ten tons of beets and twenty tons of green corn. 77 

Large and small beets in cattle feeding 78 

Sugar-beets more profitable than clover-hay for cattle-fodder; Experi- 
ments in feeding beets to cows and sheep in the United States; Prelimi- 
nary remarks; Great changes in the existing dairying process by the 
introduction of the sugar-beet 79 

Dr. Goessmann on sugar-beet feeding; Statement emanating from the 
Pennsylvania State College Experiment Station 80 

Comparison of corn silage and roots for milch cows 81 

Corn silage and clover silage vs. sugar-beets; Wisconsin experiments in 
feeding sh eep 82 

Relative value of silage and field beets in the production of milk; Experi- 
ments at the Ohio experiment station 83 

Silage vs. beets, showing feed refused 84 

Total milk produced, and gain and loss in weight 85 

Average daily yield of milk with and without beets in ration, Ohio 
station. 1890 86 

Cost of harvesting, siloing, etc., per acre of beets and of corn; Consump- 
tion of dry matter by cows fed on beets and on silage; The problem of 
fattening animals 87 

Comments on the Ohio experiments; Comparison between potatoes and 
beets 88 

Results obtained by feeding a short-horn cow and a Holstein heifer on 
beets; Results obtained by feeding a short-horn cow and a Jersey heifer 
on potatoes 89 

Difference between beet butter and potato butter; Other experiments to 
determine the value of potatoes and roots for fattening lambs 90 

Comparative results obtained by feeding lambs with potatoes, beets and 
mangels; Results of experiments made to determine the relative value 
of sugar-beets for steers and sheep 91 

Comparative feeding value of silage, beets and mangels for cows; Exj^eri- 
ments to determine the effect of different rations in fattening lambs 92 

Comparison of cost of grain per 100 lbs. with roots, and without roots; 
Comparative experiments with siloed cossettes and forage beets; Feed- 
ing sugar-beet leaves and tops; Preliminary remarks 93 

Composition of beet leaves and tops according to Dr. Herzfeld 94 

Beet -leaf stripping i , 95 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Early feeding and mistakes made; Harvesting the crop of beet leaves and 

tops; Average crop to the acre 96 

Value of beet leaves and tops; Beet-leaf keeping 97 

Composition of beet leaves siloed in two ways; Methods of compressing 

the leaves in the silos 98 

Transformation in silos and losses; Analysis of siloed beet leaves, accord- 
ing to Stutzer 99 

Efforts to hasten lactic acid fermentation; Faulty siloing; Leaves and 

other substances in silo 100 

Beet leaf siloing in Germany; Grouven's experiments in siloing leaves; 

Changes which take place in the tops 101 

Soft leaf fodder; Postelt's method; Beet-leaf washing; Lehmann and 

Maercker's method for soured leaves 102 

Acidulated beet leaves; The Mehay method 103 

Beet-leaf drying, and its advantages 104 

The Crummer dryer; Buttner and Meyer dryer 105 

Vibrans' objections to this method 106 

Wusterhagen dryer; Various modes of beet-leaf keeping 107 

Proebent's experiments in beet-leaf drying 109 

Advantages and disadvantages of beet-sugar; Beet-leaf feeding 110 

Priester's experiments; Objections to beet-leaf feeding Ill 

Oxalic acid — its influence 112 

Zuntz's experiments; Gaspari's conclusions and recommendation 113 

Conclusions respecting beet-leaf feeding; Eesults obtained in Germany.... 114 
Relation of beet to leaf composition; Saline elements taken from the soil 
and contained in beet leaves; Experiments in which cows were fed 

upon beet leaves 115 

Surprising results in feeding milch cows with beet leaves; Money value 
of beet leaves and tops; Economical advantages of the utilization of beet 

leaves 116 

Feeding seed stalks and seed 117 



PART THIRD. 

CHAPTER I. 

Feeding Fresh and Siloed Sugar Beet Residuum. 

Early appreciation of the value of sugar-beet residuum cossettes; Objec- 
tion to its use 118 

Manner of using residuum; Diffusion cossettes; In what diffiision consists. 119 

The main object of the sugar manufacturer; Composition of diffusion 
cossettes as they leave the diflTusion battery 120 

Sugar left in the residuum; Excess of water; Desirability of eliminating 
the water of diffusion pulps; Dripping and straining 121 



CONTENTS. XV 

PAGE 

Cossette presses; Objection to excessive pressure 122 

Losses during pressing; Diversity of data; Experiments of Stammer and 

of Classen 123 

Kesults obtained by Friihling and Schultz; Analysis of beet residuum 
before and after preparation; The Klusemann press, illustrated and de- 
scribed 1 24 

Selwig and Lange cone pulp press, illustrated and described 127 

Advantages claimed for the conical cossette press 130 

Daily delivery of 3-cone cossette presses of varying dimensions; The Ber- 

green press, illustrated and described 131 

Lallouette press, illustrated and described 134 

Care needed during pressing; Pressing facilitated by heat; Modes for 

facilitating pressing 136 

Maercker's mode of working; Siekel's process; Muller's proposition; 

Theory of the Manoury method 137 

Mixing of lime with the cossettes; Scheermesser's method; Pulp or cos- 
sette contracts 138 

Value of sugar-beet cossettes 139 

Conveyance of cossettes to farms; Importance of keeping the residuum 

clean 140 

Changes when exposed to the air; Not to be fed alone to live stock; Feed- 
ing value of cossettes; Importance of adding lime 141 

Phosphoric acid to be added; Beet cossettes in cattle feeding; Fattening 

of sheep with beet cossettes in the United States 142 

How to feed beet pulps; Dangers of feeding beet pulps 143 

Advantage of the saturation of pulps with alcoliolic vapors; Beet pulp 

disease; Most objectionable pulps. 144 

Maladies due to decomposed or mildewed cossettes; Use of soui-ed cos- 
settes; Conclusions as to dangers of cossette feeding 145 

Pulp malady a comparatively new fad among scientists; Osteomalacia and 

its causes 146 

Feeding with the view to production of milk and butter; Synopsis of ex- 
periments made bearing on this question 147 

Continued feeding with cossettes; Klein's observations 148 

Excessive feeding; Water in beet pulp 149 

Mistake to feed frozen cossettes; Rations for working oxen; Mode of stall- 
feeding oxen for the market on Austrian farms 150 

Eation for bulls on an Austrian fai-m; Eations for live stock in general, 
as used in France; Eations for sheep; Eations for mules and horses; 

Eation for pigs 151 

Simon Legrand's ninety-four day experiment in feeding diffusion pulp to 

cattle; Mixing cossettes with other fodders 152 

Eations for milch cows recommended by Eisben 153 

Increase in the milk production when soured cossettes are used 154 

Digestibility of residuum cossettes; Cossettes as food for man 155 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Cossettes as food for ganae; General remarks; What residuum cossettes 
feeding means in Germany; Siloing residuum cossettes; Silos for 
reducing cossettes 156 

Size of silos recommended by Pellet and Lelavandier 157 

Characteristic odors of butter made from milk of pulp-fed cows; Bottom 
paving of silos 158 

Filling silos with beet cossettes 159 

Coverings for the top of silos; Advisability of obtaining the best results in 
cossette keeping; Transformation during siloing 160 

Sacrifice by organic transformation or putrefaction; Percentage of organic 
acid cossettes may contain; Temperature which the cossettes should 
reach 161 

Transformation of the nitrogenous substances; Nutritive value of the 
amides; Percentage of anhydrous carbonic acid in the gases 162 

Principal centers for change in silos; Early chemical changes during 
siloing (Maercker) 163 

Chemical changes during prolonged siloing (Petermann) 164 

Decrease in the number of cattle in Germany during the Franco-Prussian 
war in 1870; Digestibility of nitrogenous substances for soured and for 
fresh cosset t es 165 

Liebscher's observations on the reduction of losses; Mixing chopped straw 
with the cossettes 166 

Mixing the pulp with molasses; Mixing the residuum with some anti- 
septic; Surface siloing; Simple surface siloing illustrated and described. 167 

Surface siloing using lumber, illustrated and described; Silo formed by 
excavating hillside, illustrated and described 168 

Wood-built silo, illustrated and described 169 

Dug-out type of silo, illustrated and described 170 

Underground type of silo, illustrated and described 172 

CHAPTER II. 

Dried Eesiuuxjm Cossettes. 

Early efforts in drying cossettes; Prize offered for a dryer; Objections to 

using dried cossettes 173 

The principal promoters of dried cossettes; Limit of pressing 174 

Liming before drying; Hot diffusion facilitates pressing 1 75 

The Pfeiffer compressed-air mode for employing the diffusors; Waste 

gases for drying 176 

Utilization of lost heat for drying; Eational appliances led to poor results. 177 

The Mackensen dryer, illustrated and described 179 

The Petry-Hecking dryer, illustrated and described 180 

The Buttner and Meyer dryer, illustrated and described 181 

Temperature of cossettes being dried 184 

Complete drying unnecessary; Regulating the dryer 186 



CONTENTS. XV 11 

PAGE 

Practical working of a drjer; Formula for the calculation of the efficiency 
of a cossette dryer, proposed by Eydlew.ski; Objectionable feature of 

dryers 1 87 

Analj'sis of fresh and dried pulp aiccording to Erunehfiut; Cost of plant... 188 

Steam drying; Steam dryer, illustrated and described 189 

The Thiesen dryer; The Heckmann dryer; Composition and appearance 

of the dried residuum; Average composition of dried eossettes 191 

Comparative analyses of dried oossettes and hay; Comparison between 

siloed and dried eossettes 192 

Active elements of fermentation 193 

Advantages of dried -cossettej? for feeding; Heat needed to evaporate water 

drunk 194 

Vogel'.s experiments witii sheeij; Utilization of the force developed by the 

heart; Results showing the influence of the excessive water absorbed ... 195 
Influence of water in ration on milk and weight of cows; Di'ied eossettes 

more hygienic tlian the siloed 196 

Dried eossettes more readily handled than the fresli oi' siloed; Minej'al 

substances in the dried eossettes 197 

Conservation of dried eossettes; Change during keeping 198 

Digestibility of eossettes; Eelative digestibility of fresh, dried, and siloed 

•eossettes 199 

Reduction in th<e tnutritive value of eossettes lay keeping; Moi'gen's ex- 
periments upon the digestibility of nitTOgen^ Precautions in feeding 

eossettes 200 

Complications caused by feeding eossettes 201 

Quantity of dried eossettes to be fed; Experiment-s in feeding different 
kinds of eossettes; Composition of milk from^ows fed on fresh or dried 

eossettes 202 

Comparative nutritive value of rations varied by addition of different beet 
products; Comparative analysis of milk given wlien different beet pro- 
duets were fed 203 

Three experimental rations fed to oxen 204 

Results of experimental rations; Experimental rations fed to six cows 205 

Experimental rations fed to ten sheep 207 

What is demonstrated by Maercker and Morgen''s experiments; Beneficial 

effect on horses fed with eossettes 208 

Actual economy in feedirig dried eossettes; Rations for live stock 209 

CHAPTER IIL 

Early Prejudice in the United States against Eeedin<g Cattle -witu 
Sugar-Beets and Residuum Cossettes. 

American experience in diffusion pulp utilization; Difficulty the Maine 

Beet Sugar Company had to contend with; Utilization of potato pulp. 210 
Annoying prejudices against pulps and beets in the Northern States 211 



XVIU CONTEiSTS. 

pag: 

Ignorance of certain officials 21! 

Discrimination against sugar-beet refuse by the Minnesota Legislature; 

Comments by the Minneapolis Journal 21t 

Lead in sugar-beet ptilp; Extract from Bulletin No. 74 of the Utah Ex- 
periment Station 214 

Successful introduction of pulp feeding in the United States; Early ex- 
periments at Chino; Mr. Gird's experiments 2V 

Experiments at Oxnard 217 

Experiments at Watson ville, Cal 21i 

Conclusions of the California Experiment Station; Messrs. Jaffii and 

Leroy Anderson on cossette feeding 21f 

Satisfactory results of cossette feeding in California 22( 

Agitation of the subject of feeding beet pulps in Nebraska 22] 

Experience at Grand Island, Nebraska; Experience at Ames, Nebraska. 22! 
Remarks on silos by Mr. Allen; Experiments of the Standard Cattle Co. 22.' 

Mr. Allen on feeding pulp to cattle 22' 

Conclusions of the Michigan Experiment Station 22( 

Experiments at the Pearl farm 22' 

Cossette drying in Michigan and special appliance for that purpose 22J 

Experience in New York 221 

Experience in Utah, New Mexico, Oregon, Minnesota, Colorado, Iowa... 23( 



PART FOURTH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Molasses for Feeding. 

Early experiments in molasses feeding 2Si 

General use of molasses for feeding in Germany; Increasing popularity of 

molasses feeding in Austro-Hungary 23r 

Possibilities of molasses feeding in France; Molasses utilization one of the 

essentials for profitable sugar-making 23i 

Importance of molasses utilization in the United States; Rivalry among 

manufacturers of molasses forages 231 

Composition of molasses; Albumen not contained in molasses; Varied 

opinions respecting the value of amides 23i 

Substances other than amides and their influence; Beneficial effects of 

molasses feeding 23'. 

Physiological action of sugar and hydrocarbons 23i 

Manner of feeding molasses; Milch cow feeding with molasses 23! 

Favorable effect of molasses on the production of milk 24( 

Experiments in the fermentation of milk; Molasses for feeding horses; 

Experiments by L. Grandeau 24' 



CONTENTS. XIX 

PAGE 

Work performed b_v horses, molasses being fed; Jorss' experiments; 

Molasses feeding for broken-down horses 243 

Advantages of molasses fodders for working horses; iSheep feeding with 

molasses; Steer feeding with molasses 244 

Influence of molasses combinations upon the ultimate quality of the meat. 245 

Pig feeding with molasses 246 

Pernicious effects of molasses feeding 247 

Nutritive value and variations of molasses; Evident beneficial effects; 

Practical comparative experiments in molasses feeding in France 248 

Experiments in Germany 250 

Varied molasses combinations; Molasses forages 251 

Desirable limits in molasses feeding 252 

Varying molasses rations for different animals; Money value of molasses. 253 
Classification of molasses feed; Diluted and combined molasses for feeding. 254 

Diluted followed by concentrated molasses for digestible forage 255 

Eamm's investigations of feeding milch cows with liquid molasses 256 

Hoppe on the question of molasses feeding 257 

CHAPTER II. 

Molasses Cossette Combinations. 

Cossettes, fresh and dried, mixed with molasses for cattle feeding; Aver- 
age composition of this forage 258 

Molasses cossette preparation in diffusion battery; Natanson's method; 
Molasses and dried cossettes in combination 259 

Analyses of molasses and dried cossette combinations; Increase of weight 
from the start by feeding this forage; Dried cossettes and molasses 
better than pressed cossettes and molasses 260 

Early experiments with peat molasses feeding; Composition of a forage... 261 

Peat and molasses better than bran and molasses; Possible intestinal com- 
plications through peat-molasses feeding 282 

Digestibility of peat 263 

Difference in opinion as to the value of peat-molasses feeding; Conclusions 
as to the value of peat-molasses feeding 264 

Composition of the Toury peat-molasses combination; Example of a prac- 
tical ration for horses 265 

Varied peat-molasses combination; Feeding peat molasses to horses 266 

Feeding peat-molasses to milch cows; Working oxen and cattle fed with 
peat-molasses 267 

Pigs fed with peat-molasses; Oat flour and molasses combination; Wheat- 
molasses combination 268 

Corn germs and molasses compared with corn feeding ; Wheat-bran 
molasses compared with corn germs 269 

Bran and molasses combination; Bran compared with peat; Moss-molasses 
combination 270 



XX CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Facilitation of the absorption of the by-fodder and molasses by boiling 

water; German patent for preparing molasses fodder 271 

Glucose and rice flonr combination; Feeds sprinkled with molasses and 

heated under pressure 272 

Peanut-shell molasses combination; Composition of peanut shells 273 

Composition of peanut shells combined with residuum beet molasses; 

Practical tost of the ration 274 

ComVjination for horses adopted at Tonry; Play, straw and molasses; Ex- 
periments with sheep 275 

Eamm's experiments; Molasses and straw combination 276 

Potato pulp and molasses; Brewers' grains and molasses 277 

Palm oil cake molasses combinations 278 

Two analyses of palm oil and molasses combinations 279 

Blood-molasses combinations and its composition 280 

Possibilities of blood-molasses combinations; Action of molasses as an anti- 
septic; Discovery of the disinfecting action of molasses 281 

Method of preparing blocd-molasses combinations; Composition of blood- 
molasses combination; Use of varied absorbents 282 

Analyses of three blood-molasses ccimbinations; Elimination of fibrin 283 

Two analyses of blood-molasses combinations (fibrin eliminated); Feeding 

horses with blood-molasses; Feeding cows; Feeding pigs 284 

Feeding to animals in general; Feeding to horses; Extension given to 

blood-molasses feeding; Money value of a forage-molasses 285 

General rations of blood-molasses; Preparation of the blood-molasses 
fodder on the farm ; The Schrseder apparatus ; Difficulties in keeping 

blood-molasses fodder 286 

Vaury wheat flour-molasses combination, and its preparation 287 

Preparation of solid molasses; Eequisite keeping qualities of molasses 288 

Dishonest dealings in molasses '. 289 

Keeping qualities of peat molasses; Manner of keeping molasses combina- 
tions in general; Molasses forage made at the factory 290 

Practical working of the factory 291 

Molasses combinations made at the farm 292 

Simple appliances for mixing 293 

Analyses of various molasses rations; Feeding all the molasses from a 

given area of land 294 

Various uses of molasses 295 

Molasses for alcohol manufacture; Molasses permits the utilization of 

slightly mildewed or tainted feeds; Molasses as a fertilizer 296 

Analysis of molasses feed 298 

Miiller's method of analysis 299 

Emmerling's method of estimating the nutritive value of a forage made 
with molasses 300 



CONTENTS. XXI 



PAGE 

PART FIFTH. 



Feeding with Rugae. 

Preliminary remarks; Chauveau's theory 301 

Contrast between sugar destruction in the blood during rest and during 

work; Practical tests upon men 302 

Advantage to the breeder; Feeding of sugar to cattle in the early part of 

last century -sOo 

Early arguments for feeding sugar 304 

Experiments in sugar feeding upon various animals 305 

Original argument relative to cattle feeding in very hot climates; Practi- 
cal suggestions in early discussion on cattle feeding with sugar 306 

Early opposition to oil cake feeding; Pen feeding with molasses and chaff. 307 
Questions answered by Ed. T. Waters, Esq., in 1809, in regard to his ex- 
periments with molasses in cattle feeding 308 

Sugar for general feeding and its effect upon animals 309 

Complications arising from sugar feeding; Feeding sugar to calves 310 

Feeding sugar to pigs 311 

Comparison between sugar and molasses; Opinions respecting sugar for 

pigs; Special sugar combinations; Economic considerations 312 

Experimental sugar rations for bulls and heifers 313 

Influence of sugar upon milk; Feeding horses with sugar 314 

Experimental rations fed to horses; Kesults of rations as to work and 

weight 315 

DitBculties to contend with in European sugar feeding 316 

Feeding standards; Per day and one thousand pounds live weight .. 317 

Per day and head "^1° 

Table for computing rations for farm animals; Digestive nutrients in 

stated amounts of the more common feeding stuffs; Soiling fodder 319 

Eoots and tubers 320 

Hay and straw 321 

Grain 323 

Mill products 324 

By-products 326 

Miscellaneous substances 328 



PART SIXTH. 
Definitions and Technical Considerations. 

Albuminoids; Acidity; Albumin; Alkali; Alkaline; Alimentary canal; 

Amids 331 

Anhydrous; Anhydrous sulphuric acid; Ash; Asparagin; Assimilation; 

Bacteria; Betain 332 



XXll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Eolus; Brewers' grains; Calcic carbonate; Calcic phosphate; Calorie; 
Carbohydrates; Carbon; Carbonates; Carbonate of lime; Carbonatation; 
Carbonize; Carbonic acid; Carnivorous; Casein; Cellular tissue; Cel- 
lulose 333 

Centigrade degrees; Cereal wastes; Chlurids; Chlorophyl; Chyle; Clovers; 

Coagulate; Coefficient of digestibility and nutritive relations 334 

Coloring and volatile substances; Concentrates; Constituents of the 

animal's body 336 

Nitrogenous elements 337 

Non-nitrogenous elements 338 

Corn and cob meal; Corpuscles; Cotton seed meal; Crude fibre 340 

Cubic meter; Defecation; Desiccation; Digestibility; Factors governing 

digestibility 341 

Coefficients of digestibility for fodder components 342 

Concentrated feeds; their influence upon digestion 344 

Digestibility of crude protein 345 

Coefficient of digestibility of protein; Digestibility of carbohydrates 346 

Varying digestibility of coaree fodder wlien fed with roots; Digestibility 

of fatty substances 348 

Best proportion between fat and pi'otein; Digestibility of fibre 349 

Relation between digestibility of nitrogen-free extract, crude fibre and 

fat; Digestibility of crude cellulose in clover 351 

Digestibility of nitrogen-free extract as determined by water extraction; 

Digestibility of phosphoric acid 352 

Digestibility of salt; Digestibility of ash; Digestion of cattle in general... 353 

Diffusion ; Dried cossettes 356 

Dry matter; Energy; Ether extract; Fatty substances 357 

Fermentation; Fertilizers; Fibrin; Forage; Fuel value; Gastric juice; 

Germs; Gestation; Glucose; Gluten meals and gluten feeds 359 

Glycogen; Glycose; Gram; Gullet; Gums; Hectare; Hemoglobin; Herbi- 
vorous; Hydraulic pressing; Hydroscopic; Intestines; Invert sugar; 

Kilogram; Kilogrammeter 360 

Kilometer; Lactic acid; Legumin; Levulose; Lime; Lime phosphate; 
Liter; Lymph; Lymphatic; Meter; Methane; Micro-organisms; 

Mucous; Narrow ration; New process linseed meal 361 

Nitrogenous feeding stuffs; Nutrition and excretion 362 

Nitrates; Nitrogen-free extract; Non-nitrogenous 366 

Non-sugar; Nutritive i-atio; Oil meal; Old process linseed meal; Omasom; 

Organic matter; Osmotic action; Oxalic acid; Paunch 367 

Pea meal; Pectic substances; Pentosanes; Peptones; Phosphates; Phos- 
phoric acid; Plant foods; Protein 368 

Potassic salts; Pressed cossettes; Proteids; Pulps; Radiation; Ration; 
Recticulum; Rennet or abomasom ; Residuum; Roughage; Ruminants; 
Saliva ; Sacchorase 370 



CONTENTS. xxiii 

PAGE 

Scums; Serum; Silos; Sodic chlorid; Sour cossettes; "Stalks of beet seed; 

Starch; Stimulants; Sucrose 37I 

Sugars; Wheat bran; Wheat middlings; Wide ratio; Wheat residuums... 372 
Index 373 



CATTLE FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, 
MOLASSES, AND BEET RESIDUUM. 



INTRODUCTION. 
General Considerations on Cattle Feeding. 

In the United States, as in most countries during their early Former modes, 
development, the Cow was considered of secondary importance 
in general agricultural economy. However, of recent years, 
through the researches of the Department of Agriculture and the 
agricultural experiment stations of the various States, great pro- 
gress has been made. 

It must not be forgotten that not many years since cattle in 
general on the average European farm were kept to utilize the 
waste that the farmer might have at his disposal before or after 
harvesting his crops. Consequentl}^ live stock on hand received 
a forage that was the outcome of the crop harvested, vsdthout 
regard to whether or not it was exactly suited to the animal fed. 

For a long period of years the question of feeding animals 
with the idea of keeping them in the best of health and at the 
same time fattening them for the benefit of the owner was, to a 
.certain extent, a problem almost unknown. The average per- 
son had some ideas concerning the digestive and assimilative 
processes of the animal being fed, but upon general principles 
it may be said that these ideas were erroneous. Although the 
quantity of feed entering the daily ration was increased, its 
actual cost was too frequently overlooked ; consequently the re- 
sults realized were not commensurate with the money outlay. 
Where a cow was formerly fed with the sole idea of maintaining 
the fertility of the soil, it was frequently found that the ultimate 
cost of such a fertilization rendered the plan far from remuner- 



2 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ative. In this country it is the exception for manures to be the 
main object in view. 
Present modes. At the present day all these uncertainties have been set aside 
by the rational introduction of scientific modes of feeding, based 
upon the physiology of the animal, combined with strict rules 
of hygiene, and above all by the study of the nutritive value 
of each element used. 

The agricultural chemist, and the chemists connected with 
the sugar factories, have accomplished this work almost alone, 
struggling against the routine which was always opposed to 
these results, and pointing out that the farmers, controlled by 
their prejudices, were in the wrong. They, on the other hand, 
declared that the theoretical man was announcing or enunciat- 
ing wrong ideas and that the animal itself was the best guide as 
to the elements that his daily life required. However, science 
has triumphed in the struggle. 

These studies have related to the transformation of forage into 
fatty substances, into muscles, tendons, flesh, hair, wool, milk, 
urine and excrements. They furnish, besides, a complete study 
of various forages, the effects of which one could almost de- 
termine in advance. There is, however, in this work something 
lacking, namely, the complete individual study of the animals 
being fed; also the manner in which the special product being 
tested is assimilated. 

It is at the present time recognized that there is no feed that 
may be considered universal, that is, which contains all the 
nutritive elements supposed to be necessary for the healthy 
maintenance of the organism of animals. Hay, however, comes 
nearest the ideal forage, and for this reason it is taken as the 
standard of the nutritive value of forage in general. 
Constituents of The chemical composition of a forage permits one to ascertain 
fodders. within what limits the proposed results may be obtained. For 
example, nitrogenous constituents are for the production of pro- 
teid substances, and consequently the muscular tissues. Dur- 
ing the transformation of their molecules they develop a cer- 
tain force which is utihzed by the changes which occur in 
the body. The resulting products are burned through the inter- 
vention of the air inhaled through the lungs, and constitute 



STANDAEDS OF FEEDING. 3 

what is in fact an actual heat. Their direct action in the for- 
mation of fat is not as j^et satisfactorily understood. The non- 
nitrogenous substances combine with the excess of oxygen re- 
maining after the combustion of the products of dissimilation of 
the tissues, and these also give animal heat. They are the 
substances which form the fat. 

If the quantity of nitrogenous substances is greater than is 
necessary to make good the losses of the tissues, and if the 
quantity of non-nitrogenous substances is greater than that 
which has been burned by the oxygen absorbed by the blood, 
what remains is deposited as adipose tissue. The transforma- 
tion of nitrogenous substances, in cases of insufficiency in the 
supply of non -nitrogenous substances, becomes a source of sup- 
plementarj^ heat, and thus forms an additional factor towards 
the supply of the non-nitrogenous substances, which have been 
deficient; then follows a carbonation when brought in contact 
with the oxygen of the blood, instead of forming muscular tis- 
sues, M'hich is their real function. 

If one accepts the standards now generally admitted for Standards of 
nitrogenous substances, their nutritive value is 3.5 times supe- fff<f'n9- 
rior to that of the non-nitrogenous substances, and such being 
the case one can readily understand the mistake made in fool- 
ishly wasting material that is in reality of great value in 
• obtaining the result which it is possible to realize at less expense 
with the non-nitrogenous substances. Under all circumstances 
animals should receive a proportion of nitrogenous and non- 
nitrogenous constituents, such that the substances requisite for 
the production of heat shall be reduced to a minimum, as it is 
only then that these constituents can perform the work asked of 
them in the repair of the Avaste of muscular tissues. The 
amount of non-nitrogenous substances should be sufficient to 
produce the fatty tissues besides exercising other valuable 
functions. 

The excess of nutrients which may be utilized in either of 
these ways is eliminated from the body without any benefit to 
it. The best results are obtained in giving to an animal the 
greatest amount of dry matter that can be assimilated, while at 
the same time the minimum limit of nutritive substances 



4 FEEDING WITH SUGAK BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

eliminated without benefit is secured and the digestive faculty 
of the stomach is not reduced. All non-nitrogenous substances 
have for their object the maintaining of the heat of the animal's 
body, which heat would otherwise be produced at the expehse 
of the proteid substances. Under circumstances of judicious 
feeding there follows an economy rather than an expenditure of 
the nitrogenous substances. 

Importance of The fat has for its special object the increase of the adipose 
*^*' tissues; it increases the assimilation of other nutrients and is an 
indispensable element. As for the cellulose — its principal ob- 
Role of ject is to give to nutrients the consistence requisite for the 
cellulose, intestinal assimilation of the animals to which it is fed. Fur- 
thermore, according to Tollens, it contributes to nutrition and,. 
is first transformed into pentosanes, which may be assimilated 
b}' the organism. The proportion of these substances should 
be suited to the case under consideration in order to obtain a 
good digestion and consequently a satisfactory assimilation, and 
also in order to have a profitable fattening and flow of milk, as 
well as the maximum of work, as the case may be. 

importance of Salts have the object of fortifjnng the bony tissues and repair- 
S3lt- ii-,g ^}^Q losses of the body. They furthermore render elements 
in general more palatable. Ordinary salt, for example, in- 
creased in reasonable proportions, will be most acceptable and 
agreeable. It, moreover, plays an important role as an assimi- 
lating element, and has an important influence on the exterior 
appearance of animals in general. Hulwa recommends that 
cattle consuming considerable quantities of residuuni cossettes 
from beet-sugar factories, have lime added to their daily rations; 
it may be given as chalk or in other forms, about 20 to 40 

• grams for each horned animal, but only 10 grams to swine. 

Role of water. The bodies of animals in general represent at least two-thirds 
water which is used for the transfusion of the nutritive elements 
through the entire organism. It constitutes, consequently, an 

• important factor in the assimilation. An excess of water is 
deleterious, as it increases the heat of the body, owing to its 
evaporation through the lungs and the skin. It is probable 
that this excess increases the heart's action. Under all circum- 
stances it has an influence on the assimilation and dissimilation 



HYGIENIC CONDITIONS. 5 

of the proteid substances of the organism and may result in a 
dropsical transformation of the cellular tissues. 

The most advantageous condition for the utilization of the Variable ration, 
nutritious elements of a forage is realized when one gives to 
cattle an average ration. Too small a quantity of these ele- 
ments has the effect of diminishing the accumulated reserve in 
the organism. In cases of excess they are eliminated and are 
found in the excrements. 

When one has in view the fattening of live stock it is im- 
portant not to lose sight of the fact that the animals under con- 
sideration should first of all be in a condition favorable for the 
repeated assimilation of albumin and fatty substances and their 
subsequent deposit in the form of flesh, muscle and fat. It is 
for this reason that it is desirable under all circumstances that 
cattle to be subsequently fed upon a ration of any kind should 
undergo a sort of preliminary diet leading up to the standard 
ration that they are ultimately to receive. This should, in 
most cases, continue for a period of weeks before the standard 
fattening substances are given in which the proportion of nitro- 
genous to non-nitrogenous elements is superior to that which 
the actual feeding in view demands. The substances to be 
given in a fodder should be taken according to their prices upon 
the local market; but under all circumstances one should make 
allowance for the composition of the product used, as otherwise 
the result obtained would not be compatible with the resulting 
money returns from such feeding. Upon general principles it is 
recommended that the feeding begin with a smaller quantity of 
the fodder than one wishes the animal subsequently to eat, this 
to be in excess of what it has hitherto been accustomed to re- 
ceive. A too frequent change in the composition^of a ration has 
certainly a very deleterious effect upon animals in general. 

It is above all very important that the hygienic conditions Hygienic condi- 
should not be overlooked and that these be adapted to th« tions. 
animals fed. The temperature of the stable should be main- 
tained at 12 to 20 degrees C. (53.6° to 68° F.). It is, further- 
more, essential to see that the order of the meals, three at least 
per diem, shall be the most desirable, as far as the general health 
of the animal is concerned. 



6^ FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Importance of Milk, for instance, is not a simple separation from the blood: 
regular feeding it is produced at certain stages of the animal's existence and 
for cows. Qj^iy then. It is the outcome, so to speak, of the dissolution of 
the udder itself, and it is the function of the forage to repair the 
losses which the organism undergoes, hence the reason why the 
consistence of the forage should be appropriate to the work it is 
to accomj)lish and why it should be continued with regularity. 

Nitrogenous constituents will constantly and repeatedly renew 
the cells of the udder, which are mainly made up of nitrogenous 
substances. The albuminoids should consequently combine as 
soon as possible with the vital fluids in oxder to be rapidly util- 
Working animals, ized in the manner just mentioned. For animals destined for 
work, a nutritious, rich and nitrogenous ration is recommended, 
to support the losses which the muscles undergo. Alongside of 
these elements are the fatty substances, which are also very 
important. Recent investigations demonstrate that muscular 
work is always accomplished by a considerable consumption of 
carbohych'ates; sugar, for example, can often fomi a new source 
of energy for a fatigued organism. It is under all circumstances 
essential not to overwork animals, as, if they are in any way 
emaciated through the loss of flesh, it becomes necessary to 
make up this loss — which always means a drain on the system 
— by the use of a supplementary amount of forage, by the means 
of which the original muscular energy may be restored, 
Rations for stall- For animals not working, it is proposed that the proportion 
fed animals, between the albuminous and the non-albuminous substances 
shall be as 1 : 10. Working animals and those being fed should 
receive an additional amount of albuminoids. If working oxen 
have been called upon for exceptional service in the fall of the 
year, they should be brought up to a normal standard during 
the winter, viz: they should be well fed, hot necessarily to ex- 
cess, as the expense would not be justified, and four to six weeks 
before their spring working commences their nourishment can 
be increased. 

Upon general principles, it may be said that this question of 
feeding-up should be carried on so that it be iDalatable and 
rational, resulting in the maximum effect at the least possible 
expense, and under all circumstances keeping out all those ob- 



CONCLUSIONS. / 

jectionable elements which would in any way impair the general 
health of the animal under consideration. 

Now the question is brought within the sphere of a very Conclusions, 
rational science and may be made very profitable. Fodders 
may be made as profitable to farmers as the cultivation of cere- 
als; in the latter case, the farmer is always at a disadvantage, for 
what he extracts he can never return to the soil, and this may 
also be said of potatoes and many other farm products. Here 
is one of the special advantages offered by the beet. In all 
periods of our agricultural history, the farmer has hesitated to 
grow other than that which has a market value, and feeds are 
thus neglected ; in the beet he combines both — grows something 
which he sells and which he can subsequently utilize as food. 
Whatever be the advantage of the fodder, success also depends 
upon the selection of the animal to be kept, and its age and kind 
should depend upon the locality where it is to be fed. Distant 
from towns, ordinary cattle fattening may be the more profit- 
able; near cities, on the other hand, dairying is the most desir- 
able. Before either is commenced, the farmer should know just 
how much forage he can dispose of, as upon it depends the 
number of animals to be fed. 

Stall feeding, with any idea to profit, in most cases leads to 
negative results during the winter; if farmers can cover their 
expenses and have the fertilizer as compensation, they may in 
most cases consider themselves lucky. The utilization of dif- 
fusion pulp may be made very profitable in those cases where 
all other fodders are too expensive. Farmers frequently de- 
cline attempting more than a reasonable future will allow, and 
at the approach of the cold weather the steers are sold, fre- 
quently at a loss, the stalls remain empty and farm hands are 
dismissed at the very time when the struggle for life is most 
difficult. The pulp combination in the animal ration not only 
overcomes all objections as regards high price of staple fodders, 
but brings about social prosperity among those interested by 
furnishing labor to the unemployed; it allows a more extended 
rotation of crops and supphes barnyard manure in abundance. 
The working population have meat at a loAver price, and milk, 
butter and cheese are sold at regular market rates, regardless of 



b FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

the abundance or scarcity of fodders in general. In cases where 
farms are within a reasonable proximity to beet-sugar factories, 
the fertility of the soil is maintained for the reason that the 
salts extracted during the cultivation of a crop of beets are sub- 
sequently returned. 

We are convinced that the results obtained in feeding scrub 
cattle with cossettes, are very misleading in more ways than 
one. The time will certainly come when a certain selection 
will be found advantageous, for then will follow better assimi- 
lation of the product fed and a higher quality of the resulting 
meat. Evidently, all facts being equal, the longer the cattle 
may be kept, the higher will be their price per pound upon the 
market. This question undergoes important changes, and the 
present outlook is not encouraging in this direction. 



PART FIRST. 



Feeding and Fattening- Yonng Steers and Cattle. 

, - , „ . 1 Theoretical con- 

It has already been pointed out that the value ot an animal ^j^prations rela- 

and the facihties for fattening, depend upon the amount of fat tjye to the for- 

already stored up. • mation of fat. 

Fats in fodders may be reabsorbed and deposited in the body 
without undergoing any special change; fats that have an en- 
tirely different composition from that of the body are not reab- 
sorbed, but must undergo many combinations before being 
assimilated. It then becomes evident that the fat of fodders is 
not necessarily stored up at once, notwithstanding that their 
composition is very much the same as animal fats. 

The problem consequently is to determine which are the 
nutrients that supply the greater part of the fat deposited. The 
principal groups to be considered are the albuminoids and carbo- 
hydrates, as it is mainly from them that the fat is derived. 

From the knowledge at our disposal, we conclude that part of 
the protein of fodders when it does not undergo a fermentation 
in the intestines may generate fat, which, as a general thing, is 
burned during the act of respiration at the same time as the 
digestible fat furnished with the fodder. It is maintained that 
the only way of explaining the formation of fat in the body from 
a given food is to consider the fat in the ration, and then what is 
formed by the splitting up of the protein of the feed. . The in- 
teresting problem now before us is to determine how domesti- 
cated ruminating animals store up fat, and how this can be ac- 
complished to the best advantage, as is necessary in systems 
of fattening and in meat production. The only solution within 
our reach is the determining of the efficiency of a ration by the 
increase of weight after fattening. 

Investigators have frequently been too hasty in declaring 

(9) 



10 FEEDING WITH SUGAK BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

that carbohydrates were not direct fat formers. In Kiihn's ex- 
periments it has been shown that only 24 to 64 per cent, of fat 
furnished in fodder is deposited in the body. In some special 
cases the accumulation of fat was so rapid that there could be 
no doubt that it must have had a carbohydrate origin. In the 
old theories it was admitted that 51.4 parts of the oxidized pro- 
tein of fodder was converted into fat, and by adding this amount 
to the fat of fodder it was possible to obtain with considerable 
approximation the amount of fat formed. 

The influence of carbohydrates on the formation of fat has 
been most carefully examined by Soxhlet, of Bavaria, Tschir- 
winsky, of Russia, and Weissel, of Austria. Most of these ex- 
periments were upon swine, and it was shown that the protein 
and fat of fodder could account for the fat obtained. In the 
experiments of Weiske and Schulze upon geese, with a nutritive 
ratio of 1 :5, the influence of carbohydrates could not be doubted. 
If it is admitted that 73 to 84.8 percent, of the fat formed 
comes from the protein and asparagin, 13 to 17.6 per cent, must 
have been furnished by the carbohydrates. Experiments upon 
dogs show that carbohydrates are rapidly and completely burned 
and converted into carbonic acid. While the whole question 
continues to be based upon theory, experiments made thus far 
appear to prove that an increase in quantity of the fat of fodder 
is followed by a slight increase in the animal's weight. Fat 
coming from the splitting up of protein is more readily con- 
verted into animal fat than the fat of fodder, and the rapidity 
of fat formation is greater in a fat than in a thin animal. Too 
much water in fodder has a destructive effect upon protein and 
upon the organic substances of the body ; consequently too 
watery fodders should be used with great caution. The ambient 
temperature of the stable also has an important influence, as a 
considerable part of the animal's vital heat is absorbed in heat- 
ing the air of the lungs up to the temperature of the blood, and 
if the heat of the stable is too high, evaporation is excessive and 
the assimilation of food very uncertain. The size of the body 
is not without importance; small animals demand for their 
nourishment proportionally more food than large ones. All 
bodily exercise means a consumption of fat. 



FORMATION OF FAT. 11 

A strange habit pr,e vails in some centers which consists in 
bleeding animals to be fattened: it is maintained that there 
follows an increase in the absorption of oxygen and elimination 
of carbonic acid, which, in other words, means a decrease in 
the decomjposition of fat, which Is followed by an increased 
storing up the latter. A fact now generally admitted is that 
the poorer the blood of an animal, the greater is the amount of 
fat stored up. The influence of carbohydrates on the production 
and deposit of fat may be explained by taking into considera- 
tion the decrease in the decomposition of the fat of the body. 
While it is generally admitted that 100 parts fat = 244 starch, 
Voit's experiments proA^e that 175^ parts of starch are equivalent 
practically to 100 parts of fat. The fact is, carbohydrates are 
more rapidly oxidized than is fat; they may indirectly render 
considerable service in preventing in a measure the oxidation of 
the fat of the body and that furnished by the protein of the 
fodder. When . fodders do not contain sufficient carbohydrates 
there must necessarily be a loss of fat of the body to facilitate 
the oxidation that occurs during respiration. The influence of 
the carbohydrates upon the fat of the body and that of fodders 
is limited. 

Experiments show that when fat is fed in excess of that 
necessary for the maintenance of the animal, the surj^lus is 
deposited. This fact does not hold good for carbohydrates, for 
while, up to a certain period, they help to store up fat, later, 
when in excess, their action ceases. The general laws for the 
formation or production of flesh and fat appear clearly to show 
that it is not alone necessary to feed fodder in sufficient quanti- 
ties for the apparent requisites of life, but it must be given so 
that there exists ' an actual proportion between the protein and 
carbohydrates, an average ratio appearing to be the most suit- 
able. When there is insufficient albumin, then the essential 
requisite for the rapid production of flesh and fat is lacking. 
A ration containing an excess of protein on the other hand will 
stimulate the circulatory albumin and the amount of flesh 
deposited. If the proportion of carbohydrates is too small, they 
do not exert their influence in preventing a decomposition of 
the protein, and as a result the amount of fat stored up is not 



12 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

proportional to that furnished by the fodder. An excess of 
carbohydrates brings about an unnecessary decomposition of 
protein and fat. Serious complications may arise, and the 
droppings under these circumstances contain the portions that 
have not been assimilated. 
Theoretical con- Most of the early experiments having in view the production 
siderations re- of flesh were made upon dogs. A complete account of same 
specting flesh ^yguld be beyond the scope of this writing; however, the con- 
formation. T . • 1 i. • 4. U il 

elusions arrived at are, in some respects, very much the same as 
they would have been upon ruminating animals, the assimila- 
tion or re-absorption being almost identical in the two cases. 
Wolff says that experiments show that a dog can eat 15 gram& 
of starch per kilogram of live weight; a milch cow or oxen well 
fed will extract from fodder about the same amount of carbo- 
hydrates per diem and per unit of weight, though the same may 
be said of protein, but not of fat, which ruminating animals dO' 
not digest as readily as carnivora. Let the animal be what it 
may, it becomes carnivorous when starved, in the sense that it 
consumes its own flesh. When the ration has been properly 
combined, the amount of protein decomposed from the body per 
diem and per kilogram of live weight is 1.8 grams for milch 
cows, 1.2 for sheep and only 0.75 for a stall-fed ox. When the 
ration is very rich, these figures are more than doubled, as the 
case may be. The protein consumed during fasting is by 
no means a sure basis for determining the amount needed 
to sustain life in a normal condition of health. The protein 
needed for such a purpose is several times more than the exper- 
iments indicate, for if an animal receives more albumin than it 
actually requires, an equilibrium is after a reasonable interval 
established, which, in other words, means that in the urine, 
etc., there is found eliminated an amount of nitrogen exactly 
equal to the surplus furnished in the fodder, the rapidity of the 
establishment of this equilibrium depending upon the amount 
of protein furnished. The conditions must necessarily vary for 
each case. As to the pros and cons of feeding too much protein, 
much might be written. There is ample evidence to show that 
an excess of albumin is better than a deficiency, as the waste, if 
there be any, is compensated for. Numerous experiments show 



FLESH FORMATION. 13 

that the protein consumption is less in a fat than in a thin ani- 
mal. If a ration rich in protein is followed by one poor in pro. 
tein, during the first few da3's the nitrogen expelled will be much 
greater than that furnished, and later the equilibrium establishes 
itself. The importance of salt in feeding farm animals has 
already been alluded to in these pages; however, it is important, 
in a general way, to sa}' that salt, when given in reasonable 
amounts, will increase the decomposition of albumin of the 
body by stimulating the circulation, and the volume of urine 
"thrown off is also increased. When the volume of water used 
is decreased and salt continues to be added to the fodder, the 
urine decreases, perspiration decreases, and the body can then 
furnish the deticienc}^ of water and expel the salt in excess; 
■consequently it is important, when using considerable salt, to 
give at the same time plenty of water, as otherwise the animal 
will soon lose weight. The normal conditions are soon re-estab- 
lished when the animal is allowed to drink water in reasonable 
.amounts. A fact not to be overlooked is that an animal should 
not be allowed, under these circumstances, to drink at liberty, 
as the protein consumed would be eliminated in abundance. 

In special cases too much fat in fodder will slightly decrease 
the decomposition of albuminoids, due to the fact that more 
albumin enters the circulation. 

There are methods for economizing the quantit}^ of albumin 
so as to obtain the maximum meat j)roduction. In Stoh- 
mann's experiments it was shown that by increasing the digesti- 
ble elements from 8.9 to 9.7 kilos, while the proportion of 
digestible albumin and carbohydrates remained constant, the 
amount of albumin reabsorbed was 32 per cent., while before 
the change was made it was only 18 per cent, of the total con- 
tained in the fodder, under which circumstances, when fatten- 
ing is the object in view, there is a necessity of forcing 
consumption. 

A certain care is necessary when increasing the amount of 
protein in a ration, as, if the limit is passed, there may be 
very little deposited in the tissues and the operation would 
-certainly not be profitable. 

By the addition of sugar in the shape of molasses or beet 



l4 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

pulp to fodder, there would follow a decrease in protein con- 
gumption. As to the advantages of a wide nutritive ratio, 
there is much to be said. If the limit is passed the fodder will 
not contain sufficient protein for the requirements to sustain life, 
and the reserve supply is drawn on with a corresponding loss of 
weight; furthermore, the fat of a ration is one of the expensive 
elements, and the amount to be used is a matter of considera- 
tion depending upon the market value of feeding stuff. If, 
upon general principles, it can be admitted that the action of 
carbohydrates is about the same as fats, one would generally 
find them the more economical. 

Ruminating animals when left to themselves consume large 
quantities of carbohydrates. If animals are fed simply for 
maintenance they should be given a proportionately small per- 
centage of protein, but it should be supplied, even though in a 
minimum quantity, as the cattle cannot live without it, and 
there can no, substitute be found for it. 
A wrong The feeding and fattening of steers with beet residuum 

impression, cossettes is carried on upon a very extensive scale in several 
of the Western States, and a few fficts relating to the same 
are mentioned elsewhere in this writing. Such combinations as 
are there used would hardly be practicable in the Eastern States. 
In what follows we propose to give onl}^ a general outline of the 
requisites for the practical and theoretical feeding and fattening 
of young cattle and steers, the outcome of the experience of 
most of the experiment stations and of the leading American 
and foreign authorities, combined with some personal observa- 
tions of the writer. Upon general principles it seems very 
simple to purchase at the commencement of the winter a lot of 
semi-starved animals, and to feed them upon rations consisting 
of beet-sugar factory residuum products combined with other 
forages. The increase of weight is at first encouraging, but 
towards the end of the fattening certain difficulties arise. The 
consideration of the advantage of certain foods over others in 
combination Avith either fresh or dried pulp or any molasses 
combinations would take us beyond the scope of the present 
writing; the local environment has its influence in this respect, 
and while certain forages may be found to be very superior 



DIFFICULTIES AND EXPERIMENTS. 15 

for the object in view, they may be too expensive to be 
practically applied to feeding in special localities where the 
beet-sugar factory is located. Cornmeal bran, oil meal, etc., 
may be found in most markets of the country at prices that 
undergo comparativel}^ slight fluctuations. 

The passage from liquid to solid food for growing cattle is no Difficulties con- 
easy matter; the conditions are most complicated and experi- **"''^'' ^'*'' 
ments in this special direction are very limited. What is con- ^''*'"'" 

gumed before a growing animal is w^eaned has for its principal 
object muscle and bone formation and general sustenance of the 
vital processes. Soxhlet's experiments point to the fact that 
food produced a greater increase of weight in a given time than 
would have been possible with mature animals; 1.93 lbs, of dry 
matter consumed per diem per 100 lbs. live weight, gave an 
increase of 1.8 lbs. in weight. The calves experimented upon 
were very young animals, under thirty days old. The average 
consumption of milk during this experiment was 16.2 lbs. per 
diem, and analysis of excrement proved that only 0.04 lbs. of 
dry matter was not assimilated, showing that the milk had 
been most thoroughly digested. The most natural conditions 
are to allow the calf as soon as weaned to feed upon young grass 
in the fields. As soon as cold w^eather approaches they should 
be kept in suitably arranged stalls, in pairs, never alone, and 
there should be ample room for them to move about, as a 
reasonable amount of exercise is one of the requisites for natural 
development. When the calf is taken from the field to the barn, 
green fodder should be furnished as long as possible, and it is 
in this connection that sugar beets render such excellent ser- 
vice; they may be considered as wet green fodders and may be 
furnished during an entire winter. The future health and com- 
mercial value of a steer always depends upon the winter that 
follows its birth; this is a fact too frequently overlooked. Fod- 
ders for winter feeding are expensive, so that growing cattle 
hardly get the food they require for a healthy maintenance, and 
as a result, considerable money is lost during the following 
spring, which period is too frequently devoted to recuperation 
from the bad effects of being underfed during several months 
previous. Hence it is recommended to determine in advance 



16 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

exactly what the supply of fodder is and to. limit the number of 
cattle, having their weight and age under consideration, to meet 
the requirements of the case, calculating an ample supply 
per diem. Such calculations may be brought to a very 
practical basis with siloed residuum, fresh or dried cossettes or 
with many of the molasses combinations. 
Water. The question of water is most important. The amount drunk 

by steers varies very considerably — it may reach over 30 gallons 
per diem, or be only 12 gallons. Upon general principles, it 
should be admitted that with an increase of protein in the ration 
there will always follow an increase in the quantity of water 
drank, and another factor not to be overlooked is that there is 
also a variation due to whether the steers are at freedom or tied 
up in their stalls. 

Daily weighing. We are strongly in favor of daily weighing the steers being 
fattened, when possible, as one can thus make changes in the 
general rations and bring about special classifications of the 
animals being fed. Great variations will be noticed in the sajne 
animal; some days, for some unknown reason, there will be a 
falling off rather than an increase in weight of the animal under 
observation. 

Varied feeds re- At the various experiment stations of the United States some 
commended, special food in each case appears to be recommended for steer 
feeding. The most interesting among these investigations are 
those with cotton seed, and it is claimed that it offers special 
advantages for fattening purposes, superior to most grains. Just 
in -vjiat proportions it could be best combined with beet sugar 
factory residuums must be determined by jDractical experi- 
ments, 
fssentials in It is not alone sufficient that cattle increase in weight, the 
fattening, n^ieat formed should be of the best quality, and increase of 
weight must be due to fat accumulation that thoroughly perme- 
ates the entire iibre. It would be an easy matter to show the 
increase in profits in dollars and cents. With every profitable 
case, the most important of all is to have an animal that has 
inherited certain characteristics tending towards fat. We con- 
sider that the great fault of many farmers is that they do not 
endeavor to draw a close analogy between the requirements of 



REQUISITES FOE, SUCCESSFUL FATTENING. 17 

the animals being fattened and themselves; excitement of any 
kind should be avoided, and the animal must have perfect 
quiet; hence we consider it a mistake for the cattle-shed to be 
too near the factory, as the noise from same has a thinning 
effect and prevents perfect assimilation. 

Steer feeding, on a large or extended scale, cannot be made Requisites for 
profitable unless there are suitable shelters and comforts at the success, 
disposal of the animals. It is not desirable to tie up or confine 
these animals, as they must take a reasonable amount of exer- 
cise, which is always followed by better appetites and an increase 
in the total weight of the ration eaten. The cattle must have 
comparatively warm indoor quarters where they may retire 
when so inclined. 

The fattening period should last from three to four months, 
a good limit being four months, under which circumstances the 
pulp used remains but a very short time in the silos after the 
campaign is ended, and what is left over is fed to cattle in gen- 
eral. As the fattening period progresses, the nature and re- 
quirements differ; hence it is essential to have the ration 
compatible with these requirements. During the first period 
the character of the animal should be studied, his likes and 
dislikes looked after, and, within a reasonable extent, all future 
rations should be based upon these observations. 

One advantage that pulp and beet molasses feeding offers over Advantages of 
the regular modes is that the supply may be kept well up to ^"9^'' ^^^^ 
June, and there is thus no temptation on the part of stockmen ''^^'•'"'""• 
to turn cattle out to pasture, for this sudden change in diet does 
not, as a general thing, prove beneficial. There frequently fol- 
lows an important falling off in weight. It is better to keep them 
upon the ration they have had during several months previous, 
up to the time they leave for the slaughter house. 

One of the most important points is to keep in mind that Requisites for 
the cattle must be made to eat the greatest possible amount, successful 
As previously pointed out, it is possible to force the animals, ^ *"'"'" 
so as to reach 44 lbs. dry matter per diem with an increase 
of weight of 4 lbs. a day, for a short period. There is ample 
authority to show that the feeding should be in periods — the 
first period has the object of pushing or forcing the ration; 
2 



18 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ill the second the nutritive ratio should be about 1 to 3.5 or 1 
to 4, and as during last period the appetite diminishes, the de- 
sirability of having a very digestible ration is evident. 

During the first period the standard can be 0.35 lbs. hay, 3.2 
lbs. beet, 0.18 lbs. oat hulls and 0.11 colza oil cake, which cor- 
responds to one pound dry matter. If we suppose that the con- 
sumption is 25 lbs. dry matter per diem, then the ration would 
be 80 lbs. beet, 8.7 oat hulls, 2.7 oil cake, total weight 95.9 lbs, 
varying with the eating capacity of the animals being fed. In- 
stead of beets, diffusion pulp could be used, and other by-pro- 
ducts could take the place of oat hulls and oil cake, arranging 
so that the total dry matter be up to the standard and retain the 
nutritive ratio at 1.5. 

The ration during the second period should differ somewhat 
from the first, and may be made up as follows for a standard 
corresponding to 1 lb. dry matter: 0.3 lb. hay, 2.5 lbs. beets, 
0.12 lbs. oat hulls, 0.11 colza oil cake, 0.12 chopped oil cake, 
0. 13 wheat bran. If we suppose the consumption is 20 lbs. dry 
matter, the total ration would be: 6 lbs. hay, 50 lbs. beets, 2.4 
oat hulls, 2.2 colza cake, 2.4 lbs. oil meal and 2.6 lbs. wheat 
bran. In this case, as in the previous one, such materials as 
are at the farmer's disposal may be substituted for the several 
products mentioned. The nutritive ratio is lighter than during 
first period. 

The third period is also interesting. We may use during this 
time, hay 0.30 lbs., beets 2.00 lbs., oat hulls 0.12 lbs., colza 
cake 0.13 lbs., barley meal 0.10 lbs., crushed corn 0.20 lbs. 
— to 1 lb. dry matter. 

Great care should be taken during the last period to constantly 
examine the excrements. The slightest colic would completely 
destroy all probability of success. 

Some French farmers get good results by cooking the fodder 
during the third period and feeding it warm; the cattle eat this 
with avidity and in greater quantity than they do the usual 
fodder. 
Success depends It is for the stockman to determine what kind of steers and of 
upon practieal ^^^j^^^ gge he can best feed to advantage, for both of these con- 
experience, g^^^gj-f^tions are important factors in the financial results to be 



PREPARATIONS FOR SHIPPING. 19 

expected from the undertaking. As the steer advances in age 
it can no longer lay up fat as it could when younger, and finally 
a period is reached when a sort of physical equilibrium is estab- 
lished, from which time the weight remains stationary and the 
fattening would be a money-losing operation. Before this limit 
is reached the average cost for one pound increase in live weight 
increases; while for one pound gain during the first two months 
there w^ould be needed 7 lbs. of food, after six months there 
would be needed 10 lbs. for the same increase in live weight; 
but this in beet-pulp feeding is of only secondary importance, 
as the cost of the product used is so slight that it need not be 
considered upon a basis of a few pounds more or less in the 
ration per diem, and under these circumstances the stockman 
can select his own time for selling. By most modes when this 
residuum is not a factor, the money cost of the fodder and the 
results obtained no longer leave, the stockman master of the 
situation. Experiments made some years since by Lawes and 
Gilbert tend to show that for each pound increase in live weight 
there are needed about 12.5 lbs. dry substance in the fodder. 

Upon examining the numerous bulletins of the experiment Money advant- 
stations, one is led to conclude that the cost of food for 100 lbs. ^9^^ "' ''^^* 
increase in live weight varies from $6.50 to U. With beet f^^'''""'"^- 
residuum pulp fodder at $2 a ton, this cost can be considerably 
diminished. 

A question that certainly needs important attention is greater Needs for ship- 
facilities for shipping. After a journey of several hundred Ping facilities, 
miles there follows a shrinkage in live weight which is very un- 
necessary if certain conditions of comfort were offered to the 
cattle during their transportation. 

As to the best modes of preparing fattened steers before ship- Preparations for 
ping, the authorities do not agree; but upon general principles shipping, 
it may be admitted that the less they drink and the fuller their 
stomachs are of solid food, the greater are the chances of suc- 
cess; they may drink upon arriving at destination. In some 
cases for long journeys it is desirable to feed on the road, and 
for this special case caked molasses combinations would evi- 
dently offer advantages. 

Salt in steer feeding should be used Avith certain precautions 



20 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

— it increases the thirst and considerably augments the flow of 
urine, which are certainly not desirable conditions. The lead- 
ing authorities admit that the limit allowed for a ration should 
be about 60 grams per 100 kilos live weight, this amount to be 
increased up to 100 grams towards end of fattening. In the 
Essentials for foregoing we mention that the steer to be profitably fattened 
success, jnust have certain comforts. Upon this subject Professor 
Henry says: "Dry, protected yards, with sheds on the wind- 
ward side, under which the animals may lie down in comfort, 
are the ideal places for steer feeding. To keep the steer stan- 
chioned or confined to a rope in the stable entails useless labor 
on the stockman, and prevents proper exercise. Crude as has 
been much of the open yard feeding in the West, the cattle so fed 
have really experienced more comfort than had they been con- 
fined in the stable, as is common in the East." The growing 
steers should be fed several times a day at regular intervals — 
for the older cattle the number of times may be reduced, but it 
is always important to have regular feeding hours. It is a 
great mistake, as previously pointed out, to introduce the 
cossette ration to steers at once; several weeks should elapse 
before the normal standard is reached, and from that time on 
great regularity should prevail. As cattle become accustomed 
to their attendant, the persons employed should, as far as pos- 
sible, always be the sanie, but their goings and comings should 
not be too frequent. In special modes of treatment the rations 
should be combined with almost mathematical precision, for 
the cattle eat with avidity that combination to which they are 
accustomed. Experience shows that it is a great mistake to 
attempt any temporary methods of stimulating the appetites of 
the animals fed, for a reaction is sure to follow. A very strong 
impression prevails among the average farmers, who have not 
had requisite experience, that steer fattening means sufficient 
capital at the start to purchase a herd and the facilities for their 
keeping during the fattening period, which may last six months. 
The difference in the results obtained by a professional stock- 
man who knows just what attention is needed and when it 
should be given, and another person attempting the work cf 
steer fattening for the first time, will be most striking. What 



MILCH COW FEEDING. 21 

these requisites are cannot be described in print, but our advice 
to the farmer is to have in his employ a person who has given 
the question considerable attention for a term of years. The 
troughs should always be kept clean, and all food not eaten 
removed after the regular interval for feeding has elapsed. As 
regards the droppings, Professor Henry says nothing else gives 
such an excellent idea of the progress of the fattening. " While 
they should never be hard, they should be thick enough to 
'pile up,' and have that unctious appearance which indicates a 
healthy action of the liver. There is an. odor from the drop- 
pings of well fed steers known and quickly recognized by 
every good feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour 
smell indicate something wrong in the feed yard. The conduct 
of the steer is a further guide in marking the progress of fatten- 
ing.^ The manner in which he approaches the feed box; his 
quiet pose while ruminating, and audible breathing when lying 
dowm, showing the lungs cramped by the well-filled pouch; the 
quiet eye which stands full from the fattening socket; the oily 
coat — all are points that awaken the interest, admiration and 
satisfaction of the successful feeder. ' ' 

Milcli Cow Feeding. 

There has been a considerable amount of literature published General remarks, 
respecting milch cow feeding. If one pursues the same a start- 
ling fact is apparent, viz. , much remains to be done before the 
entire question may be brought down to a practical and reliable 
basis. There are so many elements to be considered, such as 
the individual characteristics of the animal under observation, 
and the fluctuation of the market price of the foods used. The 
main object in view being milk, the cow must receive those ele- 
ments which would tend to increase this milk flow and j^et sus- 
tain the animal in the best possible conditions. If this feeding- 
is pushed to an excess, a reaction is sure to follow which will 
destroy all the possibilities of profitable feeding. 

However, it must be admitted, that in the entire field of in- 
vestigations in feeding cattle, there are but few instances where 
there is a greater harmony in results than that relating to milk 
production. Just to what extent certain foods are milk jDro- 



22 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



dncers, how certain rations are adapted to one breed of cows 
and not suited to another, etc., are questions, to fully discuss 
which would demand much space — at present simply the more 
important facts are to be considered. 

Under the best regimen concentrates are combined with 
roughage. It is doubtful if these mixtures would have been 
suited to the primitive cow; they are the requisites which are 
the outcome of the modern and special environment in which 
the milch cow is now living. The cow in its wild state had 
only her calf to feed; the demands for surplus milk for dairying 
purposes have resulted in an abnormal increase of the udder and 
its secretion, and to meet the demands there is an important 
need of some additional digestible substances that the roughage 
alone can not supply. 

While it is generally recommended that a cow shall have at 
its disposal all that she will eat, the practice is a mistake after the 
cow has reached the maximum flow of railk, as the animal will 
then tend to fatten, and this will be followed by a reduction in 
the daily flow of milk. 

No animal can adapt itself with better advantage, owing to its 
special digestive arrangement, to varied feeding than can a milch 
cow. A fact not to be overlooked is the possibility of its being 
able to use the roughage, and thus no other nutriment is re- 
quired. While apparently protein, fat and carbohydrates are not 
directly needed for milk production, they, nevertheless, play some 
important mysterious role, as the fact of the cow losing weight 
when they are directly lacking shows without further argument 
that they are essential. Carbohydrates certainly play an impor- 
tant role, but they cannot alone make up for the deficiency. 
Most feeders admit that if a cow will not respond to increased feed- 
ing by an increased supply of milk the animal had better be sold. 

The question of feeding milch cows is a subject that interests 
every farmer of the country. If his land belongings consist of 
but a few acres he generally finds it to his advantage to have a 
cow furnishing the milk for his family use. The maintenance 
of the animal under the best economical conditions may be 
better realized with sugar-factory residuums than is possible 
with any other single feed he may have at his disposal. The 



TWO SORTS OF MILCH COWS. 23 

price per ton of fresh residuum cossettes is so small as compared 
with the advantages to be derived from their use, that it becomes 
possible to reduce the annual cost of the cow feeding to a mini- 
mum. A cow properly looked after should yield over 6,000 
pounds of milk per annum, this depending, within reasonable 
limits, upon the animal's body weight. Light cows give pro- 
portionally more milk than heavy ones, and the milk contains 
more fat in the former than in the latter case. Argue as one 
may, there are certain unknown factors in the case, and the re- 
sults obtained in dairying tests are very contradictory. We 
thoroughly believe in the advantages to be derived from the 
breed, and admit at the same time the arguments of conforma- 
tion of the animal independent of breed. A writer in a bulletin 
of the Ohio experiment station points out that from the time 
the first calf is born until the seventh year, cows will give in- 
creasing quantities of milk for a given weight of fodder; from that 
time on the secretion of the milk glands apparently diminishes. 

Dairying based on maternity of the cow is well explained by Dairying based 
Prof. Henry. ''Nature's practice of accumulating fat beneath "" "laternity 
the skin and between the muscular fibres of the animal's body " ^ *^*"*' 
is to store heat and energy-producing material against a time of 
need. The process at first goes on rapidly, but after a time the 
system becomes gorged, and a further storage of fat is accom- 
plished only at a high cost for feed consumed. How different 
with the dairy cow, which eats heartily the food given her, not 
for the purpose of storing fat to protect herself against a time of 
possible bodily want, but for the nurture of the young. Food 
given at night is digested and converted into milk ready for the 
calf in the morning, the assimilated products disappearing from 
day to day almost as soon as elaborated, making easy way for 
more of the same kind from the same source — the appropriation 
by man of the milk designed by nature for the calf makes pos- 
sible the great art of dairying — man stimulates the dairy cow by 
abundant feed and favorable surroundings to produce much 
more milk than is really needed by the calf were it still the ob- 
ject of her care." 

Milch cows may be considered from two points of view, Two sorts of 
for their milk-furnishing qualities and as a source of revenue for ""''^'' ^'^^^- 



24 FEEDING WITH SUGAE BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

breeding. There are cases where they are not profitable as milk 
producers, under which circumstances they had better be fat- 
tened and sold to the butcher; for example in a city, where 
the milk is the only object in view, and the high selling price 
permits elaborate feeding. Under such circumstances the cow 
is purchased when it has attained its full maturity, that is, after 
the third calf has been bom. 
Considerations The quantity and composition of milk differ with the cow. 
about miil( and Certain cows giving considerable milk after calving will soon 
mili<ing. ^,^^^^ ^^,^^^ while the reverse would be true for other cows. It is 
always important to remember that a cow that has been dry for 
a long time gives more milk after calving; that cows reach their 
maximum of milk production after the birth of the third calf 
and then decline, but in some special cases their milk character- 
istics are retained for a very long time. As a general thing the 
milk will be more abundant and better if the calf is born during 
pasturage season. An ample supply of milk depends more than 
is generally supposed upon the dampness of the locality; near 
the sea or rivers, etc. , are the best localities. 

Upon general principles it may be admitted that immediately 
after calving the milk is the richest in protein and fatty sub- 
stances; the percentage decreases for one week, and then the 
quality remains constant. 

Milk of young animals not having attained their full growth 
is more watery than that of older cows properly fed. The 
fattened condition of the cow has also an important influence, 
and there is not the slightest doubt that it is a great mistake to 
allow the general constitution of a cow to run down, as the milk 
is sure to lose its quality. The time of milking not only has an 
influence upon the composition, but upon the quality of the milk 
which varies with the same milking; at first the milk contains 
less fatty substances than towards the end. For example, the 
morning milk contains more water and less fat than that of the 
evening, and three milkings per diem appear to be better than 
two. Whatever be the ration, it is impossible to change a poor 
milk into a rich one. 

Fat percentage in milk is the true and only basis for its sale. 
The milk obtained while feeding with sugar-factory residuum 



CALF-FEEDING. 25 

frequently contains less fat than that obtained with other pro- 
ducts, and the dairyman is in this respect at an apparent dis- 
advantage; all facts being equal, beet-residuum fed cows give a 
greater volume of milk, so that in the long run the money 
returns prove greater than they are with less milk and more fat. 

A calving cow needs a warm, comfortable stable, and should ^^Mnq cow. 
be freely covered with a blanket when the occasion demands; 
then follow many precautionary measures which are bej^ond the 
scope of the present writing, but suffice it to say that after 
calving the ration should be so arranged as to bring it up to a 
maximum pulp feeding, regardless at first of the money returns 
in butter, etc. After this pushing, compensation will neces- 
sarily follow. Experience shows that if these early stages are 
neglected, do what one may, the difficulty cannot be met. 
After the maximum milk flow has been reached, the cossette 
feeding should be diminished in a rational proportion, the out- 
come of personal observation. 

The ultimate cow is an object that one must always have in Caif-feeding. 
view; if the calf does not receive what it needs for its early de- 
velopment the full-grown cow will necessarily be disappoint- 
ing. What is much to be regretted is that, just as is the 
case with many women, considerations for the mother come 
before those for the progeny. The milk of the mother is better 
suited to the offspring than any possible combination, or even 
the nurse who makes up for the neglect. In the average 
methods of dairying, the butter, etc., considered from a com- 
mercial standpoint, are more important than the calf, and then 
one is surprised that there follows an ultimate decline in the 
quality of the average stock. Giving the calf skim milk as a 
main food and then whole milk, etc., may be all very well in 
theory, but the grain diet when it comes is introduced with 
greater difficulty. These artificial means are always a mistake. 
Hence the reason for the very faulty conclusions drawn when 
attempting beet cossette feeding with animals that have under- 
gone artificial methods and the disregard of the regular rules of 
nature during the early development. 

If the start be made with ample nitrogenous foods having in 
view muscle development, tending also to facilitate digestion, 



26 FEEDING WITH SUGAK BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

the excellent effects will be of benefit to the cow later on. If the 
fat-foiming nutriments are pushed to an excess, the subsequent 
milk forming characteristics will be considerably diminished. 
Rations and Upon general principles it must be understood that the ration 
feeds. should be made up under admitted rules, and if it contains too 
much coarse fodder there will follow a decrease in the milk flow, 
just as there would if the feed had been too sparingly or exces- 
sively given. As regards narrow and wide rations, the bulk of 
argument for economical milk production appears to be in favor 
of narrow rations. We must argue from the standpoint of the 
various localities and be governed by the price of feeds upon the 
market. In one part of the United States protein may be cheap 
and carbohydrates expensive, then in other sections the reverse 
may be the case, so it is best to have some standard and adhere 
to it as nearly as possible. The feeds to be combined with fresh, 
siloed or dried residuum cossettes depend upon the local condi- 
tions, under which certain forages are more desirable than others. 
Experience shows that corn and cob meal give more milk than 
whole ear corn, so the farmer, when possible, should give pref- 
erence to the former. There is an evident money saving in using 
cob meal and corn in preference to whole-ear corn, and the 
assimilation is greater during its passage through the alimentary 
canal. The advantages of certain cotton-seed meals as com- 
pared with gluten, wheat or corn meal, is a question to examine 
which in detail would lead us beyond the scope of this present 
writing, and as the hay added must depend upon the local sup- 
. ply, the farmer cannot be benefited by having an extended 
amount of information as to the advantages of clover hay over 
meadow hay, for example. 

While a large portion of the fodders is produced on the farm, 

certain feeds have to be purchased, and their utilization is not 

always profitable from a money standpoint. If a farm could be 

self-supporting, the ideal in cattle feeding would be reached, 

and hence sugar-beet residuum offers a practical solution of this 

rural problem. 

Influence of feeds There can be no doubt that fodders have an important influ- 

upon butter ence upon the taste of butter. Just what the cause is has never 

and milk, bggn satisfactorily settled. The winter butter is generally con- 



INFLUENCE OP FEEDS UPON BUTTER AND MILK. 27 

sidered very inferior to that resulting from pasture-fed co^ys. 
The facilities for keeping, etc., are all influenced by the fodder 
used. When the ration is poor in nitrogen or not eaten with 
relish by the animal, the butter does not appear to have the same 
consistence as when the appetite is good. It frequently happens 
that butter has a tallow flavor, and in such cases stearin is actu- 
ally in greater proportion than the fluid fatty substances. With 
an inferior fodder, milk is always more watery than it is when 
the ration has been properly combined. Experiments by Schrodt 
show that certain oil cakes are beneficial in the production of 
milk, there being, however, one important requisite, and that is 
that the rape cake used must not have undergone any alteration, 
but be perfectly fresh. 

Certain feeding stuffs have, without doubt, an important in- 
fluence upon the flavor of butter. Potatoes, beets, barley, etc., 
all have their characteristics, and certain flours, rice, etc., im- 
prove the quality and taste of butter. The composition of milk 
varies as the milking period advances. 

It is important to mention the influence of inorganic sub- 
stances on the qualit}^ and quantity of milk. The flow of milk 
is very largely influenced by the percentage of mineral elements, 
such as phosphoric acid and lime. Henneberg and Stohmann 
show that for the maintenance of an ox of 1000 lbs. live weight, 
there is needed 0.05 lb. phosphoric acid, 0.1 lb. lime and 0.2 lb. 
potassa, and if we admit that the production of milk per diem is 
10 quarts per 1000 lbs. live weight, this milk containing 0.04 lb. 
phosphoric acid, 0.03 lb. lime and 0.035 lb. potassa, by adding 
these, we see that the daily ration should contain 0.09 phos- 
phoric acid, 0.13 lime and 0.235 potassa. No account need be 
taken of potassa, as all fodders contain it in abundance. Thirty 
lbs. of hay of average quality (used for 1000 lbs. live weight), 
contain 0.122 lb. phosphoric acid, 0.256 lb. lime and 0.390 lb. 
potassa. Of all the fodders at our disposal, there are only straw 
chaff, roots, beet pulp and certain cereals which cannot be fed 
alone and demand the addition of a small percentage of lime, 
and in some exceptional cases there is a deficiency of phosphoric 
acid. The addition of common salt is very important, as it 
limits the waste of sodic salts. The beneficial effects of salt are 



28 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

numerous, among which is the stimulation of the appetite, and 
it also ameliorates the quality of certain fodders. Wolff recom- 
mends that sodic chlorid be used in doses of about 30 to 50 
grams per diem and per animal. 

One of the arguments advanced by the opponents of fresh 
cossette feeding Avas that being very watery, it would result in 
watery milk; but there is ample authority to show that such is 
not the case. The whole question of the influence of fodders 
upon the butter fat has been repeatedly gone over, and at the 
present time the results taken upon the whole are very contra- 
dictory and consequent!}^ not reliable. 

As for flavors of milk and butter, there can be no doubt that 
onions, turnips, etc., impart certain characteristics, and that 
certain grasses affect butter in a more or less noticeable degree; 
just within what limits the breed of the cows has an influence 
remains to be determined. As pointed out elsewhere in this 
writing, certain milk characteristics are often attributed to the 
feed, while in reality they are the outcome of the action of cer- 
tain micro-organisms existing in the stable; these are frequently 
due to neglect of the essentials of cleanliness. 

The question of flavor of milk is also an important one, and 
fodders have an important influence desirable or objectionable; 
hence one must take into consideration the kind of fodder being 
used. Grass from very low lands, garlic, etc., should not be 
fed. Many kinds of oil cakes are decidedly objectionable, as 
they are difficult to keep and result in a milk of objectionable 
flavor. Brewers' malt in some cases gives an inferior milk. 
Theoretical con- It must be understood that milk is not eliminated from the 
siderations. blood as is urine from the kidneys, or any other assimilation 
and excretion of the body. This fact is made evident by 
analysis of the ash of milk, which contains considerable potassa 
and calcic phosphate, while those fluids that separate from the 
blood contain considerable sodic chlorid. On the other hand, 
if milk were simply an excretion indirectly from the blood, it 
would not, within itself, constitute a complete food, and the 
newly born could not then find the requisites for their 
development. 

In the elaboration of milk from the colostrum, or the first 



THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 29 

milk secreted, there takes place little b}^ little, a sort of granu- 
lation, and finall}' the cells fill with fat. These latter constitute 
the milk globules surrounded by casein; they are suspended in 
a liquid containing casein, milk sugar, and various salts. Milk, 
as previously pointed out, is in reality a sort of fatty degenera- 
tion of the cells of the milk glands; in other words the nitrogen- 
ous elements of Avhich they consist are transformed into milk 
as soon as the glands enter into activity. Casein does not exist 
ready formed in the blood, but depends upon the association 
of certain cells. This explains why the colostrum does not 
contain it just before the calf is born. Milk sugars appear to 
be the result of the decomposition of albumin and fat. 

Milk has, all facts considered, a very regular comj)osition. 
Just what effect nervous excitement produces remains an open 
question. The quantity and quality of milk are determined 
mainly by the composition and size of the milk glands. A well 
known fact is that with the same fodder the volume of milk ob- 
tained from different cows will vary considerably. Wolff calls 
attention to the fact that the cows belonging to the mountains 
will give a richer milk than those of the valleys; that very 
young cows will give less milk than older ones. 

It is impossible, even by careful feeding, to bring about a 
satisfactory secretion of milk, unless the milk glands are con- 
stituted for its formation. In this question the race and indi- 
vidual characteristics play a part. Under these conditions the 
abnormal development of the udder is not a sure indication in 
advance of the possibility of an abundant flow^ of milk. Con- 
sequently, while feeding is very important, it is not the most 
essential requisite, and although it has a considerable influence 
upon the volume of milk obtained, it has very little upon its 
composition. Above all, the introduction of considerable 
protein is important, as upon it the constant renewal of the 
cells of the milk glands depends, as these cells are not only 
made up of protein, but are filled with it. Another fact is that 
albumin appears to increase the percentage of solid matter con- 
tained in milk. It is important that the protein reach the milk 
glands as promptly as possible, hence the albumin must be of 
the circulatory order. 



30 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

With the view to accompHshing this, it is important to re- 
member that the proportion of nutrients in the ration be well 
considered. A too narrow nutritive ratio has a tendency to 
increase the protein consumption of the body. As a general 
thing, the nutritive ratio for cows can be narrower than for 
animals fed for maintenance only. 

All facts considered, albumin is essential to milk production. 
Among other advantages, it facilitates the absorption of water, 
which has a favorable influence upon the flow of milk, etc. If 
an excess of protein is fed it will be wasted. Feeding ex- 
clusively with hay hardly ever gives the most satisfactory 
results. In ordinary feeding it is noticed that there is consider- 
able falling off when the percentage of digestible protein of the 
ration decreases, while the non-nitrogenous elements may be in 
abundance. From numerous experiments made not many 
years since, it becomes possible to determine almost exactly the 
amount of digestible protein needed, which is admitted to be 
2.3 lbs. to 3 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight, and that of non- 
nitrogenous substances 13.5 lbs.; the nutritive ratio conse- 
quently is about -J, in which is included 0.3 to 0.6 lbs. of 
digestible fat, while the total dry matter reaches 24 lbs. to 
35 lbs. 

The satisfactory production of milk may also be accomplished 
with a ratio containing less nitrogen, but the experiment to a 
certain extent is rather risky. Wolff says, if after several 
months the flow of milk reaches 10 quarts per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight per diem, and if the milk contains fat and albumin in 
the proportion which constitutes good milk, it would be a great 
mistake to feed less than 2.5 lbs. of protein. Apparently an 
increase in the amount of fat of a ration would, as does protein, 
bring about a favorable effect upon the flow of milk, more 
especially in regard to its percentage of fat; but practical ex- 
periments in this direction do not show this to be the case. It 
may, however, be admitted that an increase of fat in a ration 
will slightly increase the flow of milk, which will contain more 
fat than the normal milk, but it should be fed with precaution, 
as otherwise it also would be wasted. Just to what this is to be 
attributed is an open question. Wolff says that possibly a cer- 



SHELTER, 31 

tain amount of albumin of the fodder is not destroyed and in- 
fluences the flow of milk. It is important to call attention to a 
series of investigations in which the animals had suitable 
amounts of oil cake, etc., added to their ration, so that the 
daily consumption of fat was about one pound, and the total 
production of milk remained almost unchanged; furthermore, 
there followed a slight reduction of fat in the milk, accom- 
panied by a greater dilution, and consequently a decrease in 
the percentage of solid matter. On the other hand, Kiihn's 
experiments show that it is possible to add one pound of fat 
and thus secure an increased flow of one pint of milk, while the 
fat percentage of the latter remained about the same. Experi- 
ments upon goats differed somewhat from these, and it is 
difficult to determine just within what limits conclusions of 
this kind have a bearing upon cows. Experiments of Weiske 
show that sheep that had been fed with 0.5 kilos hay, 0.5 kilos 
barley, and 1 kilo beets, did not yield more milk than with a 
ration of grass ad libitum to which was added 0.5 barley and 
0.25 kilos flaxseed meal, but the percentage of fat increased 
from 5 to 6.4 per cent. 

When cows are fed exclusively upon hay, tlie yield of milk 
per diem will decrease rapidly, but the percentage of dry mat- 
ter in the milk will increase. 

Essentials for Successful Dairying. 

The question of shelter varies in importance to the animal Shelter, 
being fed; for steers it never means as much as it does for milch 
cows. When the temperature in the stable is below 50° F., 
there is a decline in the milk production, and in view of this 
question, it is difficult to undertake profitable dairying on a 
limited capital. 

Experience seems to show that for 1000 lbs. live weight, there 
are needed 1000 cu. ft. of air, and in combination with this, 
ample ventilation and no draught. It stands to reason that if 
the air is not pure, the quality of the milk will suffer. Just as 
light plays an important role in the health}^ condition of man 
so it does with cattle and too much attention cannot be given 
to all these hygienic questions. 



32 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Luxury. If a cow can be surrounded with certain ease and comfort, it 

will tend to increase her milk flow. In this matter we refer to 
bedding, stable, warm surroundings, etc., and, even in summer, 
there should be protection against the sun. 
Stables. Stables should be spacious and of a constant temperature not 

too high. The beds should be sufficient and on a horizontal 
surface. There does not appear to be any special evil effect 
from keeping manure in the stable, but care must be taken that 
a reasonable amount of plaster be added to combine with the 
liberated ammonia. 

Breed and kind Dairying cannot be profitably undertaken unless due consid- 
of cow. eration is given to the nature of the cow. In most cases the 
market value of milk depends upon its percentage of butter fat, 
and certain breeds give more than others and are never the 
cheapest when purchased but by careful feeding they may be 
more profitable in the long run. The best breeds do not eat 
more than the inferior kind, and yet the butter production may 
be four times greater in one case than in another. 

Cows should Cows should have a trial even if highly recommended, and if 

have a trial, j^^^ found up to expectation should be got rid of. A pulp 
ration may be suited to one breed of special characteristics and 
not to another. The question can be reduced to a science, and 
the ultimate result which in no country has ever been sufficiently 
considered, is to create, as it were, a special cow suited above 
all others to the diet offered by thorough cossette feeding. A 
few cents more or less in the selling price of the resulting butter, 
milk, etc., makes these arguments more and more plausible. 

Continued at- Neglect can never be made up for, and if one cannot give to a 
tention. milch cow constant and continued attention, there will be a loss 
in the long run. If the flow of milk for one reason or another 
decreases, the average is below the normal during the season. 
Kindness. The importance of kindness is too frequently overlooked in 
the care of milch cows, and as the secretion of the milk gland 
reaches its maximum during milking, it is then that precaution- 
ary measures should be taken, for any imkind treatment would 
simply lower the flow of milk from the gland. Even before or 
after milking brutality always means nervous excitement with a 
reducing action on the milk gland flow. Thus the milker has 



DIFFICULTIES IN FEEDING. 66 

an influence upon the volume of milk obtained, and its per- 
centage of butter, fat, etc. 

Feeding-. 

While fodders are essential for the production of an abundant Time of feeding, 
supply of milk, regularity in feeding has an importance equally 
great. This must never be overlooked, as when the hour comes 
the cow frets, bringing about nervous excitement, which is 
always followed by a decreased flow of milk. It is better to feed 
the milch cow just after milking rather than before, and under no 
circumstances during milking, as the milk might be contaminated 
by certain volatile substances that feeds frequently contain. 
These find their way almost immediatelj^ to the milk, which 
would result also in poor butter. Three meals a day, in which 
the total ration is proportionally fed, should be given, and if 
hay is given but once a day, better feed at mid-day. After the 
last meal straw might be advantageously used. It is important 
that the animal completely finish one meal before it commences 
the second. 

Successful cossette feeding depends in more ways than one Successful cos- 
upon the feeder; he must care for and be interested in his Avork, sette feeding, 
must love animals in general, realize that animals, like men, 
have certain characteristics and must be dealt with accordingly. 
The element of cleanliness appears to have been overlooked in 
certain farms that have attempted cossette feeding, yet success, 
especially with milch cows, depends upon this; and to at- 
tempt looking after many more than twenty cows is in more 
ways than one a mistake. 

Various theories are advanced respecting the influence of ex- Excessive 
cessive feeding, some claiming that its effects are only temporary feeding, 
and that a reaction will soon follow. Experience seems to show 
that when the ration for milch cows is rich in protein and com- 
paratively poor in carbohydrates, the conditions continue to 
improve for a long time, while if the carbohydrates are in excess 
the reverse will be the case. 

Scientific feeding means that the animal fed receives exactly Difficulties in 
what it requires, neither more nor less, and this fact alone makes feeding, 
it eivident how complicated the whole question of proper feeding 
3 



34 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

becomes. It necessarily means repeated weighing and analysis 
of feeds used. If these essentials are neglected and merely an 
average is taken, practical results may be obtained, but it re- 
mains to be proved that they are always profitable in the long 
run. 
Stable feeding All facts considered, it is possibly best during very warm 
and exercise, weather, that cows be taken to the fields during the day and put 
in the stables at night. The yield of milk is evidently influ- 
enced by exercise taken, so if that is the sole object in view, as 
is the case in proximity to cities, the less exercise the better; 
if, on the other hand, the object aimed at is to secure a good 
cow to be subsequently used for breeding, fresh air is necessary. 
Considerable might be said as to methods of keeping fields in 
proper condition. 
Feeding witti the An impression generally prevails that there is a certain rela- 
view to butter ^^^^^ between the ambient temperature and the hardness of 
butter, but the truth is, it is the winter ration that is responsible. 
Let a breeder feed linseed, etc. , to an excess and the butter will 
soften, regardless of the ambient temperature. The same may 
be said of bran, but the reverse is the case with corn. As hard 
butter always means more money, the question remains whether 
it is not profitable in the end to purchase those feeding stuffs 
that will lead to this result — as the market demands vary so 
should the ration. 
Feeding accord- Feeding according to records means a constant all-day watch- 
ing to records, j^^g. suitable tables should be made giving the practical results 

obtained. 
Summer feeding. There is a tendency to give up pulp feeding as soon as the 
grass appears; this change of diet must always be made grad- 
ually and with certain precautions. 
Question of The question of labor on most American farms is one that 
'^''*"'- neutralizes in a very important manner all arguments as regards 
the economical production of meat, milk, butter, etc. ; that is 
why the tendency is more and more to adopt a sort of loose 
feeding, giving ample room for circulation, with abundance of 
water. The cleaning need only be done at regular intervals of 
several months. Also it is pointed out that in stall-feeding, the 
milk is much freer from microbes than when the cows have 



INFLUENCE OF WATER UPON FOOD CONSUMPTION. 



35 



their freedom; hence what is gained in freedom as regards labor 
is lost in the quality of the resulting milk. 

Too much importance cannot be given to the question of 
possible bacterial contamination, and the only way to master 
its pernicious effects is by cleanliness. The more closely the 
cow can be looked after, the less are the chances of bacterial 
contamination. Cleanliness is more efficiently attained in stall 
than in pen feeding. 

Whatever be the kind of food used, it always contains water 
in varied proportions; in grains and dried fodders it may be 8 
to 16 per cent., in roots it is frequently 90 per cent., while in 
green and siloed fodders it is on an average nearly 80 per cent. 
As water when combined with foods plays the same role as it 
does when drunk, it does not enter into consideration when the 
computations of rations are made; for this reason the analysis 
of fodder frequently expresses water-free or dry matter. The 
water estimation for fodders in general is extremely simple; it 
consists in chopping up the sample and weighing; it is then 
dried at 212° F. for four or five hours, and is weighed several 
times during this interval; when there is no further variation 
in weight, the desiccation is complete. The w^eighing before 
and after drying gives the moisture percentage. 

Water forms an important proportion of an animal's body, 
and varies considerably. With a well fattened ox it may reach 
46 per cent., while in case of sheep, for example, it is not much 
more than 35 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight. 

Cattle in general need water, and consequently they eat, with 
avidity, fodders containing considerable moisture, such as dis- 
tillers' water and fresh residuum beet cossettes; but there is a 
limit which never should be exceeded, as many complications 
are to be feared. Cattle in general eat according to their appe- 
tites, and they frequently absorb more water than their healthy 
digestion demands, and under these circumstances there would 
be very little flesh or fat formed. It is to be noted, however, 
that cattle fed on brewers' residuum frequently have a bloated 
appearance, and when sold upon the market, bring very low 
prices. 

Cattle kept in very warm stables have abnormal thirst and 



Bacteria. 



Water in 
feeding. 



Influence of 
water upon 
food con- 
sumption. 



36 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

perspire proportionally, which has a thinning effect; and too 
low a temperature in the stable is also objectionable, as an extra 
amount of food is necessary to supply the caloric needed to heat 
the air breathed to the temperature of the body. 

The water absorbed has an important influence an protein 
consumption. Experiments have shown that this increase may 
in some cases reach nearly 6 per cent. Voit points out that 
it is a mistake to allow too much water to be drunk when live 
stock is being fattened, and therefore the salt ration should be 
limited. It has also been pointed out that the proportion of dry 
matter in a food to water should be for cattle one to four, and for 
sheep one-half this. There is ample authority on the other 
hand to show that in cows allowed to drink at will, the milk 
flow was increased and the fat percentage remained normal. 
Many other experiments have been made, however, which 
tend to show that it is very doubtful if there are any advantages 
in having water at the constant disposal of cattle, as cows 
allowed to drink in the yard are as healthy as those depending 
upon their barn supply. 

As the daily milking means drawing off of water, this must 
be supplied, and some experts declare that one had better allow 
the cattle to drink twice, once in the morning and once in the 
evening, rather than only once. Which is the best mode of 
keeping the water remains an open question. If the stock is 
being fattened it is better to have the supply in the stable 
rather than compel the animals to make long tramps to drink 
at some distant stream. 
Water drunk and Some experiments have been made to determine the amount 
its influence. Qf -water drunk by lambs during fattening, and the results show 
that it varied with the food. For sugar beets it was 0.4 lbs., 
while with oil meal it reached 4.8 lbs. The temperature of the 
water has an important influence on the flow of milk. Experi- 
ments in this direction made at the Wisconsin station with two 
lots of cows, showed that when the water was at 70° F. on the 
one hand and 32° F. on the other, in the first experiment the 
warm water gave 6 per cent, more milk than did the cold water; 
in the second experiment this difference was very much less. 
An interesting fact furthermore was revealed, viz., that with 



ESSENTIALS OF GOOD WATER. 37 

warm water the daily consumption was 8 to 10 lbs. more than 
with cold water. 

The percentage of water decreases in an animal as the process 
of fattening advances, and whatever be the increase in weight, 
water will represent at least ^ or J of the flesh added. 

The water Avhen given in excess dilutes the gastric juice and 
sooner or later brings about digestive complications, and has an 
important influence on the quality of the milk. The supply of 
water is consequently a most important question, and under all 
circumstances must depend upon the ambient temperature. 
Experience seems to show that, under normal conditions, if the 
stable be at 60° F. , when animals are stall-fed Avith a ration 
containing ^ of their weight in water, this quantity is sufficient 
for their maintenance, in fact, they refuse any additional drink. 
When water is in excess, it stimulates the excretion of urine. 

The loss of water through the urine, lungs, etc., is at least 
50 lbs. per diem, so that quantity must be furnished, and if, for 
example, the dry fodders contain 10 lbs. of water, then 40 lbs. 
must be given as drink. 

When excessively diluted rations are given, diarrhoea is sure 
to set in, hence such fodders are objectionable. This might be 
an argument against the general use of diffusion pulps, but the 
difficulty in this case is overcome by a liberal use of chopped 
straw. So arrange that the requisite amount is furnished, say 
3 to 4 times the weight of dry matter in a ration. 

Good water should be free from organic matter in a state of Essentials of 
putrefaction, and it should be clear. Water under all circum- good water. 
stances must have combined with it a certain amount of air, 
otherwise it would be heavy on the stomach. River water ap- 
pears to offer certain excellent conditions, and rain water may 
also be used. Water in swamps, from drains, etc., need only 
be considered bad when it has a strong characteristic odor and 
in most cases animals prefer it, even when strongly charged 
with urine, to any fresh from a fountain. Some authorities 
recommend that bran or wheat flour be added to water with the 
view of purifying it. 

Salt should be at the cow's disposal, and it is a mistake to Salt, 
give only rock salt. A great mistake is also an over-feeding of 



38 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETB. 

salt, the outcome of a faulty practice of mixing this with the 
ration. When cows have for a time had less salt than they 
actually need, it should not be introduced suddenly into their 
ration. 
Mistake in start- To produce an inferior article, as has been frequently done 
ing a dairy, through the temptations of cheap feed, means no profitable 
future; hence certain preliminary tests should be made, for 
competition always exists and the investment may prove a 
failure, not on account of the inferiority of the product fed, but 
due solely to neglect of the most elementary principles of cow 
feeding. With poor stock upon the start, there necessarily 
follow discouraging results. 

If the animals are not to be stall-fed it is important, before 
attempting to start a dairy, to take into consideration the pas- 
turage facilities in the vicinity, and while in the foregoing damp 
soils were, to a reasonable extent, recommended, it must not be 
forgotten that stagnant water is very objectionable, as the milk 
would certainly be influenced thereby. 
Cooperative jn the West the distances are comparatively greater than in 
the East; there, as elsewhere, the attempt at cossette utilization 
on a cooperative basis, if there are not at least 600 cows to 
form part of the combination at a distance of a few miles, will, 
upon general principles, never prove a success; under no cir- 
cumstances should this be done in an amateur way, but the 
advice of recognized experts, and not of agents representing 
specialists, should be taken. 

Calculation of Rations foi* ]Milcli Cotvs. 

Preliminary Remarks. 
While in this country most of the directors of our agricultural 
experiment stations accept the European standards and methods 
for the calculation of a ration for milch cows, etc., very satis- 
factory results are obtained by the so-called empirical sys- 
tems of feeding. Farmers are too proud to admit that they 
cannot manage their own dairying establishments without the 
aid of scientific theories and a ration is compounded by them 
which yields a given number of quarts of milk per year with 
considerable profit to all interested. They forget that the 



methods. 



RATIONS FOR MILCH COWS. 39 

'very proportion of which their ration consists has not been 
determined by them as they imagine, but in reality approaches 
in some form or another a standard that was the outcome of 
theoretical consideration. Let the fodder be changed, and the 
practical man will then be only too glad to consult with an 
agronomist to know just how much coarse by-fodder is to be 
fed to meet the requirements of his special case. It is not alone 
sufficient to get together fodders that will give satisfactory jdelds 
of milk and butter, but these results must be accomplished in 
the most economical way. It may often be cheaper to purchase 
certain fodders than to use in excess what happens to be on 
hand at the period of feeding, the cost of which rations may 
vary from 10 cents to 35 cents per diem. It may be more 
profitable to spend 25 cents upon a cow's ration, than it is to 
save 15 cents by using fodders not suited to the special case 
under consideration. While in most calculations very little 
account is taken of the manurial value of the droppings, these 
in reality, if properly collected, will represent nearly one-half of 
the original cost of the ration, which in dollars and cents 
means, that if this manure had been purchased, it would 
be worth in itself one-half, and frequently one-third, of the 
original cost of the feeding stuffs used. For many districts 
this value of manure has but a secondary importance, at least 
for the present, and it is unnecessary to take it into consider- 
ation. 

While the principal authorities, such as Kiihn and Wolff, 
differ as to standard rations, there is not so much variance in 
their theories as would at first appear. They each admit that 
a certain number of pounds of organic matter, protein, etc., 
must be fed. The Wolff rules are not so elastic as those of 
Kiihn; but practical experiments have shown that they both 
have advantages and disadvantages, and neither of them takes 
into consideration the individual characteristics of the animal 
being fed. While the Wolff tables have been more generally 
adopted than those of Kuhn, practical experiments of the dairy- 
ing associations of the United States show that the standard 
rations used and determined from long experience, are in reality 
nearer those of Kiihn than Wolff. 



40 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



One hundred ra- The University of Wisconsin has collected one hundred 
tions for milch rations of dairy cows in the different parts of the country.* A 
sjaiopsis of these rations arranged according to States is' shown 
herewith. When they are compared with the Wisconsin stand- 
ard, they are found in some way to be faulty in their com- 
binations. Corn silage and wheat bran are the most popu- 
lar fodders used. These are followed by mixed ha}^, corn meal 
and linseed meal. 

The nutritive ratios, with the exception of those of the Rocky 
Mountains and the Pacific States, are very nearly what they 
should be. 

Composition of One Hundred Rations for Dairy Cows. 



Nutr. 
Ratio. 



New England States • • • 

Middle States 

Central States 

North Central States • • 

Southern States 

Rocky Mountain States 

Pacific States 

Canada 





Digestible Matter. 


Dry 
matter. 










Pi'otein. 


Carb. 
hydr. 


Fat. 


Total. 


24.28 


2.10 


13.19 


.75 


16.04 


24.65 


2.27 


13.68 


.82 


16.77 


22.97 


1.97 


12.78 


.72 


15.47 


25.79 


■ 2.08 


13.79 


.68 


16.55 


23.48 


2.00 


12.14 


1.05 


15.19 


30.81 


3.12 


15.39 


.79 


19.30 


21.60 


2.68 


10.54 


.55 


13.77 


21.57 


1.76 


11.69 


.63 


14.08 



1:7.1 
1:6.8 
1:7.3 
1:7.3 
1:7.2 
1:5.5 
1:4.4 
1:7.4 



The average annual yield of milk and butter for the 2,921 
cows fed on the above rations was 6,314 lbs. and 303 lbs. per 
head respectively; the general average of fat in herd milk was 
4.59 per cent. After a careful study of the question, we must 
Requirements admit that our cows need more fat and carbohydrates than the 
of American European standards call for. This may be readily understood by 
cows as com- reason of the severity of our climate, which demands more heat- 
pare wi forming elements to maintain the caloric of the body. In most 



European. 



*See Bulletin No. 



FAULTY RATIONS. 41 

of the dairying centers of the Eastern and Western States, snow 

is on the ground several months of the year, and the requisites, 

under these circumstances, must differ as regards winter 

feeding from those at centers where most of the experiments 

upon the digestibility of feeding stuffs have been made, in 

fact where the nucleus of the entire science originated. It 

must be constantly borne in mind that the standard we have fhe standard 

adopted is simply a guiding basis for scientific feeding. It is ^'''"'^**'- 

for the farmer to determine within what limits the individual 

characteristics of a special environment are suited to the cow 

being fed. It is important, however, not to be too hasty in 

drawing conclusions, as a reasonable number of days must 

elapse before the animal under consideration can come under 

the entire influence of its new ration. 

By the use of special tables for computing rations^ for farm Special tables, 
animals, the work is much simplified. Many of the detailed 
calculations are done away with, and only the results are given; 
hence by their use there is a considerable saving of time. 

In calculating a ration, the main object in view is to combine 
several feeding stuffs so that their total dry and digestible mat- 
ter shall be near a standard accepted as a basis. To attain the 
result in view, one must m.ake a number of trials, reaching the 
desired conditions only after several substitutions and alterations. 
Many of the rations used for cattle feeding are by no means Faulty rations- 
standard, and will not bear examination. For example, on 
many dairying farms in California, 100 lbs. of residuum cos- 
settes, 15 lbs. hay and 5 lbs. barley per 1,000 lbs. live weight . 
are used. This ration has the following percentage of dry and 
digestible matter : 

* The tables used are to be found in Part Six of tliis volume. 



42 FEEDING WITH SUGAK BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Composition of Kation No. 1, Fed to California Dairy Cows. 



100 lbs. residuum cossettes- 

15 lbs. hay (clover) 

5 lbs. barlev 



Dry 

matter. 



20.8 lbs. 

12.95 " 

4.45 " 



Total ; 38.00 lbs. 

Wisconsin standard I 24.5 " 



Protein. 



0.6 lbs. 
1.02 " 
0.43 " 



2.05 lbs. 
2.2 " 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
and fat. 



7.3 lbs. 
5.94 " 
3.46 " 



16.70 lbs. 
14.9 " 



Total. 



7.9 lbs. 
6.96 " 
3.89 " 



18.75 lbs. 
17.1 " 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 



1:12 
1:5.8 
1:7.9 



1:8 
1:6.8 



While the total digestible matter is in excess of the Wiscon- 
sin standard, the total dry matter is out of rational proportion, 
and the ration taken as a whole is too wide. 

Another example taken from the same State is of interest. A 
dairyman writes us that he gives to his cows a daily ration con- 
sisting of 80 lbs. fresh or siloed cossettes, 6 lbs. corn and cob 
meal, and 6 lbs. hay. 

Composition of Eation No. 2, Fed to California Dairy Cows. 



89 lbs. cossettes 

6 lbs. corn and cob meal • • 
6 lbs. hav 



Dry 
matter. 



Protein. 



8.0 lbs. 0.48 lbs. 



5.1 " 
5.10 " 



Total 18.2 lbs. 



0.264 '^ 
0.408 " 
1.152 lbs. 



Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat. 



Total. 



5.84 lbs. 6.32 lbs. 
3.99 " I 4.254 '^ 



2.36 " 



12.19 lbs. 



2.768 " 
13. 342 lbs. 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 



1:12 
1:15 

1:5.8 



1:10 



This ration is certainly not to be recommended, as not a single 
portion of it is up to the desired standard, yet it ajDpears to be 
in practical use. 



MANNER OF CALCULATING A RATION. 



43 



We shall now give a general idea of how a farmer may cal- Manner of calcu- 
culate a ration. No technical skill is required, only very careful '^*'"9 3 "*'<>"• 
handling of the data contained in the tables previously referred to. 

In the present example, we may suppose that a farmer has 
50 cows of an average weight of 1000 lbs. , and that all condi- 
tions are favorable for cattle feeding ; also that the winter 
feeding lasts from November to May, we may say 200 daj^s, 
and that the barn contains 40,000 lbs. clover hay and 70,000 
lbs. oat straw. Residuum cossettes have been obtained at 
the beet-sugar factory and siloed, the quantity being 200 tons 
or 440,000 lbs. As 70 tons of beets offered to the factory have 
been refused, they must also be kept during the winter, and 
represent 154,000 lbs. Under the best circumstances, it is not 
desirable to consume all the hay on hand, but for the present 
we may simply suppose that it is all fed, other fodders being 
put aside for spring feeding. The 40,000 lbs. clover hay to be 
consumed in 200 days means 200 lbs. per diem or 4 lbs. per 
cow. in the same manner the consumption of oat straw 
should be 7 lbs. per diem, 44 lbs. cossettes, and 15 lbs. of beets. 

If we should use only what is on hand, the daily ration for 
each cow would be as follows: 



Composition of Suppositious Kation for Dairy Coavs. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible. 






Protein. 


Carbohy- 

di-ates 

and fats 

X 2.25. 


Total. 


Eatio. 




3.40 lbs. 
6 37 " 


0.272 lbs. 
0.084 " 
0.264 " 
0.165 " 


1.584 lbs. 
2.828 " 
3.212 " 
1.560 " 


1.856 lbs. 
2.912 " 
3.476 " 
1.725 " 








44 lbs. cossettes 

15 lbs. beets 


4.40 " 
1.95 " 




Total 16.12 lbs. 

Standard 24.5 " 

1 


0.785 lbs. 
2.2 " 


9.184 lbs. 
14.9 " 


9.969 lbs. 
17.1 " 

7.131 lbs. 


1:11 

1:6.8 


1 
Difference 8.38 lbs. 


1.415 lbs. 


5.716 lbs. 





44 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



The fodders to be added must make up for this deficiency, 
and the kind, depend upon the market price and the locality in 
which the farm is situated. It must be noticed that the ration 
as it exists is entirely too wide, hence there should be added a 
fodder with narrow ratio. The tables show that 9 lbs. of wheat 
middlings will very nearly furnish what is needed, and as thej' 
may be had at a low price they may be used. 



Modification of Above Eation. 





Dry 

matter. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
by drates 

and fat. 

■ 


Total. 






16.12 lbs. 
7.92 " 


0.785 lbs. 
1.152 " 


9. 184 lbs. 
5.463 " 


9.969 lbs. 
6.615 " 




9 lbs. wheat middlings . • • . 


1:4.7 


Total 


24.04 " 


1.937 " 'l4.647 " 


16.584 " 


1:7.5 







The ratio is still rather wide, and there remains 0.27 lbs. 
protein to be furnished. We must select a fodder that will 
have a low nutritive ratio, and one pound of linseed meal meets 
the essentials: 



Further Modification of Above Ration. 





^J ] Protein, 
matter. 

1 


Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat. 


Total. 






24.04 lbs. 1.937 lbs. 
.90 " 0.282 " 


14.647 lbs. 
0.464 " 


16. 584 lbs. 
0.746 " 




1 lb. linseed meal 


1 :1.6 


Total 


24.94 " ; 2.219 " 


15.111 " 


17.330 '' 


1:6.8 



Without the use of well arranged tables considerable guess 
work must be restored to, but by their use the problem is 
solved almost at a glance. In the calculations one could enter 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 45 

into great detail as to the cost of the ration per diem. With 
pressed cossettes from the factory a very important portion of 
the nutrients is obtained at a comparatively low figure. In the 
case we have supposed, the 450 lbs. of wheat middlings and 50 
lbs. of linseed meal per diem would have to be purchased, and 
should be on hand as soon as possible. It means the purchase 
of 450 X 200 or 90,000 lbs. with 10,000 lbs. linseed meal, the 
latter costing not more than $20 a ton and the former $18 per 
ton. The money outlay for the farmer is certainly less than 
$1,000, from which he has 10,000 rations, meaning 10 cents per 
ration. As the cossettes are had free or at a cost of 50 cents 
per ton, they enter into the ration for less than one cent. As 
the beets cost the farmer at least $3.00 a ton, they enter the 
ration for less than two cents. All facts considered, the daily 
ration consisting of 4 lbs. clover hay, 7 lbs. oat straw, 44 lbs. 
sugar-beet cossettes and 15 lbs. of beets should cost less than 13 
to 14 cents per diem. 

The feeding of steers, lambs, etc., offers no difficulty; if their 
rations consist of dried or siloed cossettes, or even of the various 
molasses or sugar fodders, the calculation is done in exactly the 
same manner. The standard ration for each animal differs. 
The question of economy in the use of the by-fodder added 
must be separately calculated, and would take us beyond the 
limits of the present writing. 

Slieep Feeding. 

The beet pulp utilization has given an enormous impulse to General con- 
sheep raising in the United States. No less than three instances siderations. 
may be cited in which the lots are 30,000 each, hence the im- 
portance of having a general outline of the requirements for the 
successful care-taking of these animals at various periods of 
their growth. As the milk of ewes is seldom used for man in 
this country, its characteristics need not be discussed for the 
present. Several of our experimental stations have taken up 
the question of comparing the results obtained in lamb feed- 
ing with cows' milk and with regular rations made up of 
various feeding stuffs, and decided in favor of the milk. As 
milch cows are usually fed in large number with residuum beet 



46 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

cossettes, the milk required for the special purpose of lamb 
fattening at certain seasons of the year, generally in mid-winter, 
may be had at a very low cost, and almost defies all other 
competition. 

During the very early days of the lamb's existence it had 
better depend upon its mother for its subsistence, and the im- 
portance of having the ewes well looked after is self evident. 
A suitable diet is needed, and express orders should be given 
not to permit shearing, as experiments show that this is gener- 
ally followed by a decrease in the flow of milk. However, 
when from local reasons there is a marked demand for the wool, 
the secreting powers of the ewes may be restored after a week's 
time by the Judicious introduction of certain feeding stuffs in 
the ration. 

The age of the animal has an important influence on the 
possible money profits that are to be derived from fattening, the 
young animals being, in the long run, more profitable. 

In whatever State sheep feeding with residuum pulp is prac- 
ticed, one is to a certain extent dependent upon the breeds that 
the locality can furnish. Certain breeds are more profitable than 
others. For breeders who purpose to continue with lambs frOm 
year to year, it may be considered advantageous to carrj^ out 
certain comparative breed tests. In order to save money and 
time, experiments have been made with self-feeding appliances, 
the grain being placed in a special upper receptacle, and falling 
by gravity as the hopper connecting it with the trough becomes 
empty. The sheep have in this manner food ad libitum. These 
devices have never been up to expectations, and are not to be 
recommended. 

We have already mentioned in a general way how the shear- 
shearing dur- ^j^g influences the milk; in the same way the possibilities of 
fattening are lowest when the wool has been removed. In this 
respect the experiments of Craig of the Wisconsin station have 
brought to light some important conclusions, among which may 
be mentioned that shorn lambs eat more, drink less water 
and make 30 per cent, less gain than the unshorn, hence when 
fattening is the object in view the shearing, and even increase of 
wool, is objectionable. 



Mistake of 



SHEEP CHARACTERISTICS. 47 

By shearing in the fall of the year and again in the spring 
more avooI is obtained than from a single spring shearing, bnt 
the market A'alue of the two clippings, is not any greater than of 
the single clipping, in which the fibres of the fleece are larger. 
When the lambs are to be fattened during three or four winter 
months, there appears to be no practical advantage in fall shear- 
ing. A rather surprising result obtained in this question of 
sheep fattening is, that unlike the steer, very little advantage is 
to be gained by in-door feeding. Evidently to make up for the 
difference of temperature in the two cases, more food is required 
to obtain the same results. Whatever be the success in feeding, 
there will always follow a certain shrinkage when sent to their 
destination, and the question is open to discussion whether in 
the long run it would not be more profitable to have the stock 
yards in the direct vicinity, especially as the resulting blood 
could be combined with the molasses and cossettes to form part 
of the regular daily rations. 

There is very little available information as regards the exact Beet [cossettes 
advantage of introducing beet cossettes on an extended scale in ^'"' ""^ ^'"''• 
sheep feeding, but the results in Nebraska show in a general 
way that the advantages are considerable. Just whether it is 
advantageous to use corn, wheat, etc. , depends upon the locality 
in which the feeding is done, and when the beet cossette feeding 
has become very general in its applications, we are convinced it 
will completely change all existing modes, resulting in greater 
-economy and facility. Certain facts always remain, whatever 
be the mode of feeding. A long series of investigations will be 
needed to determine exactly what influence cossettes have on 
the quality of the wool; however, in this respect, as every one 
knows, the environment has more influence than the actual food 
eaten. 

Among all the animals the breeder has to handle, none can sheep char- 
subsist on more varied rations than can sheep; they evidently acteristics. 
adapt themselves to any circumstances that may arise. The 
general characteristic of the sheep is that its general condition 
improves when in flocks of several thousands. When these ex- 
tensive flocks existed some years since, it always necessitated a 
Jarge area of ground in some corn State, and the experienced 



48 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

care of a shepherd. Now with an abundant supply of residuum 
Requisite feeding beet cossettes, special quarters are provided which occupy a corn- 
space and other paratively limited space. Professor Henry * discussing this 
essentials, question says: "A ewe weighing 100 lbs. will require about ten 
square feet of ground space, while one weighing 150 lbs. should 
have 15 square feet. A space 40x40 feet square will therefore 
accommodate about 160 sheep weighing 100 pounds each, or 
100 weighing 160 pounds, not allowing for feed racks. Provide 
15 inches running length of feed rack for each sheep weighing 
100 pounds, and two feet for those weighing 200 pounds." 
"Sheep to be profitable must be kept dry as to coat and feet; 
inattention to either of these essentials will result disastrously. 
. . . One thickness of closely-matched boards will make the 
barn or shed where sheep are confined sufficiently warm in the 
Northern States, except for winter lambs." 

In several efforts at sheep feeding in the United States, com- 
ing under our notice, the flocks are simply collected together 
regardless of their weight, size and general characteristics, and 
the ultimate results obtained would certainly be disappointing if 
critically examined. 

An enormous number of lambs die after being born; the 
early care needed is frequently lacking, as the object in view is 
simply fattening; but this will change in time and the requisite 
hourly care-taking will be given. The American sheep and 
lamb cossette feeding is generally over before the time for past- 
uring has arrived, and even if this were not so, the pasturage in 
most cases where factories are located would not be sufficient to 
meet the requirements of the case. However, in this respect 
there is much to be said, for in cases where the cossettes have 
been properly siloed the feeding can continue well on into the 
spring, the flock being removed when the desired fattening limit 
has been reached, f and it is then recommended to allow the 
lambs to have the full run of the fields, returning to their 
mothers through smaller spaces than the ewe can pass. As the 



*See " Feeds and Feeding," p. 516. 

t The increase according to the best authorities is one pound live weight per 
1 lbs. dry substance fed. 



SHEEP FATTENING. 49 

lambs may be born at any period, it is well to adopt the system 
of placing something tempting for the lambs. As regards the 
quantity of water to be allowed sheep, authorities differ, some 
declaring the less water the better, some that a few quarts daily 
are sufficient. Too little attention has hitherto been given to the 
feeding troughs, which should be constantly cleansed, and the 
cossette ration not eaten removed and replaced by fresh. 

In the general rush at sheep feeding on an extended scale Importance of 
with the view to utilizing cossette fresh from the factory, too sheep selection, 
little attention is given to medical examination of the animals 
to be fed, and the result is that disease soon spreads and plays 
havoc among the flock. 

Just as is the case with milch cows, sheep must be fed at reg- Sheep fattening, 
ular intervals and treated with constant kindness; they become 
accustomed to special attendants, and they alone had better 
handle the question of feeding. In whatever State the sheep 
feeding is carried on, there are always certain essentials for the 
market; but just what these are would carry us beyond the scope 
of the present writing. The fattening proper cannot commence 
until sheep have been not only weaned, but have got their full 
set of teeth. 

In countries presenting passable conditions the sheep grazing 
can commence when the cattle leave off. It is important that 
the sheep be not allowed to walk distances out of proportion 
to the food gathered, otherwise the exercise would not lead to 
very beneficial results as far as the farmer is concerned. Evi- 
dently the best meat is obtained from sheep that are familial? 
with good pasturage on lands more or less charged with salts, like 
those near the seashore, which frequently offer the best results. 

The fattening of sheep is a much more difficult process than 
that of cattle, owing to the individual characteristics of each. 
They must be classified not only according to weight, but also 
in regard to special characteristics. The rule is to give stimu- 
lating food, so as to obtain the greatest possible consumption 
per diem. 

When rams have commenced to give evidence of their 
maturity they require a very diff'erent ration from sheep that 
have been altered or females. 
4 



50- FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

The varying requisites in sheep raising render their profitable 
breeding most difficult. It is pointed out that when conditions 
permit, that sheep, even in summer, be not allowed to leave 
the fold on empty stomachs. The change from dry fodder to 
pasturage should not be accomplished too rapidly. A good 
custom that seems to prevail is that of giving sheep plenty 
of exercise even in cold weather. The principal difference in 
fodders to be given to older sheep and types, previously men- 
tioned, is that the percentage of coarser feeds is to be aug- 
mented and the concentrated diminished. The total per diem 
is .diminished and carbohydrates increased. 

While oats are objectionable as a general ration, in this 
special case they render excellent service; as they have an ex- 
citing tendency on the procreating organs, their introduction as 
a ration must be effected gradually, just to take the place of 
bran; and when the greatest effect has been produced the 
ration is withdrawn little by little. In all casss the question of 
age is an important factor. 

Raisers of sheep have many theories that are not altogether 
in accordance with practice. Ample feeding for sheep is as 
important as it is for cattle. 

Unlike cattle, there is no special time for sheep to be born, 
and it occurs just as frequently in summer as in winter. The 
rations during the two periods must, however, differ; in summer 
there is the natural pasturage, and what sheep can utilize is 
very different from that for cows. The question remains to be 
solved just within what limits lands are suited to sheep. 
Swampy low lands do not give satisfactory results. The lands 
should not be too far from the fold and farm to furnish suffi- 
cient food to thoroughly satisfy their appetites almost twice a 
day. It has been suggested that the best method for determin- 
ing the quantity of grass, etc., needed, is to weigh a certain 
number of sheep before and after their feeding, by which means 
one could ascertain the average consumption.. When winter 
feeding is considered it must not be forgotten that sheep during 
gestation have not attained their full growth, and should be fed 
accordingly. Very coarse fodders are not suitable for sheep; 
too highly fermented food is also objectionable; excitable 



SHEEP FATTENING. 51 

fodders are very objectionable, and the nutritive ratio should 
be 1:4, with at least 60 per cent, moisture. Beets give excel- 
lent results, and should in all cases be mixed with chopped 
straw, etc. It is difficult to determine Ihe exact quantity of 
fodder to be given; the best guide with sheep is the amount 
they refuse. 

Great advantages are to be derived by allowing sheep to have all 
the milk from the mother that they need. The health of a sucking 
lamb depends upon the health of the mother. The discussions 
of this question are outside the province of the present writing. 

One sheep should never .be allowed to feed more than one 
lamb at a time, and in special cases the use of a bottle may give 
excellent results; two quarts of milk per diem is readily con- 
sumed by an average healthy lamb. 

Good and well selected fodder comes next in importance. 
Great care should be taken that the fodders be not too rich 
and dry. The lamb as well as the mother under such rations 
would soon die. 

During very rainy weather the grass and general pasturage 
contain so much water that it is frequently found possible to 
supplement their food in fold. The sucking should be repeated 
four times a day (at first much oftener), and during the interval 
the mother has ample time to recuperate. Arrange so that the 
mother and young one are separated by a partition with doors 
large enough for the lamb to pass, but not the mother. The 
first tooth appears after four months, and the weaning should 
then begin. One meal of oil cake, etc., is furnished during the 
interval of their sucking. These meals become more numerous, 
and within a month the weaning should be complete. 

It may be considered a mistake to make a distinction between 
the requirements of male, female or altered sheep. The object 
in all cases is the same, that of securing in one year the most 
complete development possible. 

The French authorities are strongly opposed to the use of oats 
in sheep rations, as this fodder has a very exciting tendency 
and as a result a very thinning effect. The summer pasturage 
is very much the same as it is with sheep. The rations should 
be as much like fresh grass as possible. . 



52 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Feeding Working Animals. 

Theoretical con- The theories relating to the feeding of working animals 
siderations. j^^yg undergone many changes within recent years. For a long 
while it was admitted that muscular exertion always meant a 
wear and tear upon the organs of the body in which the ex- 
penditure of protein was several times greater than during 
periods of rest. Experiments by Voit have long since demon- 
strated that the consumption of albuminoids is not necessarily 
greater during Avork than it is in rest. Evidently during work 
the circulation is more active which necessitates a greater con- 
sumption of protein in special directions, but there soon follows 
a compensation. On the other hand, during the activity there is 
necessarily greater consumption of fat than during rest, and also 
it must not be forgotten that during this period more oxygen 
enters the lungs, the combustion is greater and the caloric gen- 
erated is increased; this is necessarily followed by an increased 
perspiration and ultimate loss of animal heat. Consequently 
efforts to fatten an animal doing work Avould be folly. The 
subject continues to be constantly discussed and authorities do 
not agree. Many of the experiments made upon dogs have led 
to some results of more or less importance. The Avriter con- 
siders it unnecessary to give numerous tables, showing that the 
consumption of protein is entirely independent of work done as 
mentioned in the foregoing. 

Interesting experiments by Henneberg upon sheep show that 
the muscular expenditure due to mastication and rumination 
have an important influence upon the loss of carbonic acid. 
Animals receiving their rations in the regular way threw out 
from the body 54 per cent, of total carbonic acid during the day; 
when fed at night, 56 per cent, of total carbonic acid was thrown 
off during the twelve hours of feeding. Numerous experi- 
ments upon horses offer for our readers matter which is for- 
eign to our subject. ■ As regards this question, it is interesting to 
mention that some authorities pretend that as the consumption 
of fat increases with work done, it is to this source we must look 
for muscular force. As the work done has its equivalent in the 
excess of heat produced, there is possibly a transformation of 
heat into work exactly as in the steam engine. Heat comes 



THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



53 



from the fuel consumed, which caloric is subsequently trans- 
formed into power in the receiving receptacle. From this it is 
concluded that it is mainly from the carbohydrates that heat is 
obtained, and the resulting force is only 20 per cent, of the total 
caloric, which results are however superior to the very best 
mechanical appliances. This is only theory and does not agree 
with the facts of the case. If the forces of the body represented 
a simple transformation of animal heat, it would be possible to 
keep on working night and day without the least sensation 
of fatigue. 

If there is greater heat produced during work than in rest, 
this is compensated by the increased perspiration which estab- 
lishes an equilibrium. Some years since it was declared that 
when feeding animals during excessive work, their rations must 
contain considerable protein, and a comparatively small amount 
of carbohydrates. The function of protein is not to produce 
power, but it is essential for muscular activit3^ 

Recent experiments, on the other hand, show that carbo- 
hydrates, such as sugar, actually mean strength. There can 
be no doubt that animals store up a certain amount of power in 
various forms. Max Riibner has demonstrated that dynamic 
equivalents of nutrients are almost exactly equal to their 
caloric equivalents. It is, however, to Stohmann that the 
credit must be given of this interesting discovery. It has been 
demonstrated that 100 parts of fat have the following equivalents: 



Equivalents for 100 Parts 


OF Fat. 




Number obtained 
directly. 


Calculated. 


Myosin 


225 
232 
231- 
256 


213 — 4424 calories. 


Starch 

Cane sugar 

Glucose 


229 = 4416 
235 = 4001 
^55 — 3692 " 







54 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

These figures show that the different carbohydrates men- 
tioned agree ahiiost mathematically. Stohmann admits that 
the thermogenic values " of one kilo of albumin, fat and starch 
are represented bj^ 5715, 9431 and 4116 calories." It is evident 
that the dynamic and thermogenic equivalents are different. 

The factor 2.44 as admitted between fat and starch is too 
high. One gram of organic substances of A^egetable origin, such 
as rye bread, represents 3960 calories. While fats and carbo- 
hydrates have important functions to fulfill in the production 
of power, the protein elements undergoing decomposition in the 
-body are compared by Voit to a constant flow of water, the 
amount escaping through the mill-race being perfectly inde- 
pendent of the energy obtained. Other experiments appear to 
show that the decomposition of protein means an absorption of 
water, and the ultimate splitting up of the protein molecules 
means the formation of urea and fat. 

Considerable albumin in the fodder helps without doubt in 
the production of muscular energy; when w^ork is continued 
for a long period the nutritive ratio must be more contracted 
than when at rest. While indirectly the decomposition of 
protein in the body may be considered as a source of power, it 
must not be forgotten that the decomposition continues even 
during sleep. 

-- An abundant supply of nutritive substances is not alone 
sufficient to produce work; the body of the animal fed must be 
in a good healthy condition, otherwise there is only a partial 
assimilation. A weak animal with a poor muscular organism 
would give very poor work, even when well fed, as compared 
to one whose muscles are in prime condition. In fact, there 
is very much less oxygen stored up. 

In this question of the production of work it must not be 
forgotten that the muscles cannot and do not work properly if 
the gases evolved and wastes are not constantly removed from 
the circulation. Gouty and rheumatic tendencies are important 
examples of muscular activity, due to an unusual deposit of 
lactic or uric acid. The theory now accepted is that muscular 
force depends upon the splitting up of some element making 
up the muscle rather than upon an actual oxidation, thus the de- 



THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 55 

composition in whatever form it may be considered depends to 
a certain extent upon the storing up of ox5^gen, which remains 
dormant as it were until needed. The Henneberg experiments 
show that most of the oxygen is taken up during the night, this 
being true not only when the animal is at rest, but also when 
working. As regards carbonic acid, the reverse is true, viz., 
most of the carbonic acid is thrown off during the day and the 
amount increases with work done. An important fact is that 
the storing up of oxygen seems to depend upon the amount of 
protein fed. 

Muscular activit}^ always means an expenditure of fat and 
carbohydrates, hence there can be no doubt of the importance 
of a fodder containing a sufficient suppty to meet almost any 
emergency. Additional fat is a very important element in the 
production of work, and it is not surprising that the working 
classes as such depend so largely upon fatty foods. This sub- 
ject of production of work from foods has been' reduced to a 
science, and among the most important results in this special 
direction are those of Sanson. The problem is to establish a 
proportion between the work done in raising one kilo one meter 
high, and the energy of a kilo of protein combined with fatty 
substances and carbohydrates. 

The mechanical equivalent of one kilogram of protein corre- 
sponds to 1,742,500* kilogrameters of work; and consequently 
an animal fed can develop that amount of M'ork without loss of 
weight. To compose a ration that would fill all the require- 
ments of the case, the distance traveled in a unit of time, the 
effort consumed, and the total time during which work lasts 
must be considered. 

If K represents foot pounds, P protein, and X the number of 
foot pounds that 1 lb. of protein will produce, we shall have the 

following equation: K ^ P X X, consequently X = — . This 

-proportion is frequently termed the mechanical coefficient of pro- 
tein. In experiments upon horses, it was shown that by sub- 
tracting from the protein consumed during work the protein 

*One kilo of protein = 4,100 calories; one calorie = 425 kilogrameters. 
4,100 X 425 = 1,742,500 kg. ra. 



56 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

consumption during rest we obtain the protein requisite for 
work produced. In such calculations it is well to consider the 
digestible protein; in fact, upon general principles we may admit 
that the working powers of an animal depend upon its digestive 
activity. 

Again using the above formula, we have: 

K = PX 1,742,500. 

Consequently if we have a ration consisting of known fodders 
it is possible to determine the work it can produce. In a few 
words, the calculation consists in determining the raw protein of 
the ration and the coefficient of digestibility. 

Work done =: Crude protein X Coeff. of digestibility X 1.742.- 
500. If the work is known in advance the protein necessary 
may be determined by a very simple calculation. 

Upon general principles it must be admitted tliat an animal 
will not develop muscular force unless its muscles are in good 
condition, which means health. The amount of albumin de- 
posited in the organs and in the circulation must be sufficient to 
supply the demands for the production of work. Under special 
conditions the mechanical energy developed may be increased 
by using a very concentrated ration. 
and'Tows^" '^^® working of cows and oxen on farms is not practiced in 
this country as in Europe, consequently the subject has for us 
only a secondary importance. The ration of an animal doing 
work must necessarily differ from one being stall fed, and 
the appetite is greater owing to the effort of nature to restore 
tissue consumed during work. Instead of the standard given 
for growing cattle, we can increase the quantity of beets -| lb. 
per diem and slightly decrease the cotton seed cake. The pro- 
portion for each would then be 35 per cent, of total dry matter 
furnished by beets, 17 per cent, h&j, 13 per cent, wheat, 18 per 
cent, cotton-seed cake, and 18 per ceiit. malt sprouts. For an- 
imals 12 to 18 months old and consuming 18.5 lbs. dry matter 
per diem we should have a ration as follows: Beets 46 
lbs., clover hay 3.7 lbs., wheat straw 2.7 lbs., cotton seed meal 
8.7 lbs., malt sprouts 3.7 lbs. Under these circumstances there 
would follow an increase of weight of about y^^ or 1.8 lbs. per 



GENERAL REMARKS. 57 

diem; if at the commencement of the season the animal weighed 
770 lbs., its weight would be after six months about 1,000 lbs. 

As many cows are w^orked during their gestation, it is of great 
importance not to give them beets that are even slightly fer- 
mented. It is the custom on some farms to prepare the ration 
and allow it to subsequently ferment, but there is constant dan- 
ger under these circumstances of bringing about a miscarriage. 
Young oxen through this feeding may work and gain in strength 
and weight; the ration then undergoes a slight change, and con- 
tains a heavier percentage of coarser fodders. After the end of 
the third year they attain their maximum working weight. 
There are many arguments as to the comparative advantages of 
working an animal that is to be subsequently fattened, and 
of allowing it to remain idle for over two years. 

Oxen when doing light work do not require very much more 
fodder than is needed for their maintenance; on the other hand, 
if extra work is demanded of them, it is important to furnish 
per 1,000 lbs. live weight about 1.6 lbs. protein and 12 lbs. of 
non-nitrogenous substances, the nutritive ration being then, 
1:7.5. 

Rations In General. 

The Wolff tables are calculated on a basis of 1000 lbs. live Oeneral'remarks. 
weight per diem. Several French authorities justly point to the 
fact that these figures are not based upon thoroughly scientific 
facts. Little or no allowance is made for the difference in the 
assimilating powers of certain races of large and small animals, 
no account is taken of the age of the cattle being fed, and there 
is no effort at economy of fodder used, when a little more or 
less in certain cases would bring about very different results 
financially. It is most difficult by using these standard rations 
to ascertain their economic working. It is also pointed out that 
a knowledge of the average temperature in the stables is neces- 
sary, and that in reality the daily rations should vary with the 
ambient temperature. When every fact is considered, it re- 
mains to be thoroughly proved whether the best ration should 
not be governed by the appetite of the animal being fed. We do 
not in our present writing consider it worth our while to enter 
into those very complicated theories based upon the caloric neces- 



58 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

sary to keep up the animal's consumption. Furthermore it was 
proposed that the ration should vary with each animal, as the 
cube root of the square root of the animal's weight. All chest 
measurements for weight of ration are also very empirical, as 
the expansion of the chest is by no means constant and varies 
irom minute to minute; a variation of one inch in these meas- 
.urements makes a very considerable difference in the results 
obtained. So all facts considered the standard may be the best 
guide. It may, however, be desirable to have tables for an 
average weight and to decrease or increase same, as may be, 
lemembering in all cases that a small animal eats more, propor- 
tionately, than a large one does. 
Standards. Animals of given weight, age and kind, are capable of eating 
a certain amount per diem. An average in each case has led 
to certain standards upon which the whole art of cattle feeding 
depends. Hence well-arranged tables point out just what 
amount of protein and fatty substances should be fed to cows 
being milked, or cattle going through the process of fattening. 
To remain within rational limits, it is important to be con- 
stantly watching the condition of excrements thrown out by 
each animal fed, as if it is receiving that which it cannot digest, 
there will soon be evidence of this in the excrements, and the 
ration then should be altered until normal conditions are 
reached. Practical experiments appear to show that the di- 
gestive capacity of cattle is about 2 to 3 per cent, of dry matter 
of their weight. Upon this basis one can approximate the 
maximum feeding capacity of the product on hand for a given 
period.. 

All standard rations are based upon the supposition that the 
stable is kept at a temperature that varies from 12 to 20° C. 
Jn exceptional cases, during winter for example, the tempera- 
ture is very much below this standard; under which circum- 
stances it becomes important to increase the percentage of heat- 
forming elements, and in such cases beets may render good 
service. The caloric is thus furnished to the animal and he is 
not obliged to abnormally exhaust those elements for heating 
the body which should be otherwise utilized. The carbohy- 
drates and fatty substances are particularly desirable. It has 



VARIATION IN RATION. 59 

been recommended that the carbohydrates be increased y-g- and 
protein -^^ for every 5° C, fall below 12° C. 

The composition of a ration should vary not only with the Variation in 
animal but with the object in view. If it is simply to keep the standards, 
animal in good condition, then its fodder would be a main- 
tenance ration. In case of cows giving milk there is another 
element that must be considered besides that of furnishing the 
body with its requirements, which is that of meeting the drain 
-that the milk production requires. While animals may be 
made to feed upon stuffs that their nature did not origin- 
ally intend, they do not under these circumstances retain their 
original constitution. Animals, for example, in zoological 
gardens are kept alive on foods that they would have declined 
under normal conditions. There follows a great change in their 
characteristics. When the question of fattening is to be con- 
sidered, then the problem is to force the consumption of rations, 
which is accomplished by furnishing an ample amount of con- 
centrated stuffs, and these may consequently be considered as 
additional rations. Just as man eats bread to represent volume 
in the stomach, which is one of the essentials of perfect diges- 
tion, live stock must have a certain amount of coarser elements 
added, the volume of these depending upon the cases under 
consideration. The coefficient of digestibility depends upon 
the age of the animal; when very young it requires considerable 
protein- and phosphoric acid, and the nutritive ratio should be 
as near as possible to that of green grass. As the years advance 
the ratio gets smaller. Calculations of this kind are no easy 
matter, and are not within the power of an average farmer; but 
we consider that very accurate results may be obtained from 
-certain practical rules. 

Rations should var}^ in their composition. Whatever be the Variation in ra- 
advantage claimed for cossettes, beet leaves and their varied 
combinations, it is never desirable to keep the ration of the 
same composition for too long at a time, as live stock in general, 
like men, need a change in the diet, and their general health is 
improved in a very important measure by these changes. The 
variation should not consist in a different food at each meal of the 
same day. Cows or live stock are individuals of habit, and ex- 



tiofl. 



60 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Appetizing 
tions. 



Distribution 
rations. 



pect their ration during the period of special feeding at the same 
hour and of the same kind; in other words, the first meal 
should not necessarily be the same as the second, but on each 
successive day let it be identical at the same hour, otherwise 
there would certainly be a falling off in the expected results. 

It is a great mistake to change the ration too suddenly. 
Even with fodders of the very best quality there is a falling off 
in the flow of milk after a change is made, and no condition is 
more important for an abundant supply of milk than the uni- 
formity of regime. 

A precaution too frequently overlooked is to arrange so that 
the summer ration shall be in reserve in sufficient amount ta 
meet every possible emergency caused by bad weather, etc., 
and the same may be said of winter rations. In case fermenta- 
tion occurs, the reserve can be drawn upon. The supply of 
beets and beet pulp now renders excellent service. 

The success of cattle feeding frequently depends upon the art 
of presenting the ration in the most appetizing form and thereby 
realizing an abnormal consumption; and as for milch cows, the 
more appetizing the ration is the better, upon general principles,^ 
will be the milk, and herein may be found the exceptional ad- 
vantages of the sugar beet and its residuum — it is always eaten 
with avidity. A custom that has certainly led to very unsatis- 
factory results is to simply throw the various compounds of a 
ration into the manger without any attempt at mixing; this is 
a mistake, and never leads to satisfactory milk production. 
Experience appears to show that it is best to give the more 
palatable ration in the morning, while the roughage is placed at 
the cow's disposal for night-feeding. 

The number of meals per diem and of what they should con- 
sist vary with each kind of animal being fattened. Regularity • 
in feeding is the basis of success. Animals that are worked 
must necessarily have a longer interval between their meals 
than those that are stall-fed. Whatever plan is adopted, it 
must be adhered to. Cattle become restless when the meal 
hour approaches, and if irregular the wear and tear on their 
constitution does away with all beneficial effects that would 
be otherwise obtained. The meals should not all be of the 



MONEY MODES OF CALCULATION. 



61 



same kind; they should, within a reasonable extent, differ not 
■only as regards quantity but composition; it must be borne in 
mind that these differences must be very slight, as they would 
otherwise be followed bj^ digestive complications. Hence the 
importance of passing very gradually from stall-feeding to pas- 
turage. It isf important to watch the supplj' of fodders on 
hand, and when one is low and a change must be made, arrange 
to effect the same graduall}'', at least 8 to 10 days being necessary 
for these changes of diet. 



Commercial Talue of Fodders. 

The Germans employ much technical detail to determine the 
value of fodders, which in reality is a most simple question, 
■and is governed by the supply and demand. The price of a 
commodity must necessarily vary with the advantages of its 
production in the center where it is sold. The writer intended 
to give an average price of the standard fodders for the United 
States, but was obliged to abandon the project owing to the 
great difference in the value of a staple such as hay; it may 
fluctuate from a few cents per ton to several dollars (15 to 20). 
The German method consists in accepting hay as a standard 
and to allow a pro rata value for the digestible elements of 
which it is composed; knowing the composition of any fodder, 
its crude protein, fat, etc. , are multiplied by the standard prices 
-and its commercial value is thus obtained. 

One need onlj'' make a calculation of this kind and compare 
the price obtained with the market rates to realize how far such 
theoretical considerations are from the reality. Another point 
not to be forgotten is that whatever be the fodder used, it must 
necessarily contain several elements that are not utilized in the 
manner that theory supposes, under which circumstances, if we 
place a money value upon them, we shall pay for an ingredient 
that is wasted, and this would certainly not be in accordance 
"with the true principles of economy. 

Place a definite price per pound on protein, fat and carbo- 
hydrates, the data being based upon the average market price, 
'which is about as follows: Protein 1 to 2.5 cents, and carbo- 
hydrates from 0.5 to 1 cent per pound. The advantage of this 



All existing 
modes of es- 
timation of 
value very 
empirical. 



Money modes 
of calculation. 



62 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

data is that it is supposed to enable the farmer to calculate in 
advance what fodder is to his actual advantage. While the 
market prices of cotton-seed meal and gluten meal may differ 
only by one dollar, the actual feeding value may vary $10. It 
is interesting to note that the nutritive money value as admitted 
in the United States is very different from that adopted by 
Kiihn, who declares that if the carbohydrates are worth one 
cent per pound, the digestible fatty substances would then be 
worth 2.44 cents and the protein digestible constituents, 6 cents. 

However, even the caloric basis of estimation is very mis- 
leading, as the formation of flesh and fat, the flow of milk, etc., 
depend upon other physical conditions than simple generation 
of heat. It becomes evident than even in this case, it is im- 
possible to obtain results that are more than approximatively 
correct. The only true basis that might be suggested is the 
actual analysis of each fodder used, and this would be too com- 
plicated to have any practical value. A fact too frequently 
forgotten is that to a farmer the most valuable fodder is not the 
greatest milk and meat producer, but the one that can accom- 
plish this at the least possible cost. 

If of two fodders, one yields two pounds of digestible matter, 
and the other only one pound, then the one fodder is twice as 
valuable as the other for nutrition, irrespective of the market 
price. The price of meat is not so variable throughout the country 
as the price of seeds, so we may base estimates upon it. To pro- 
duce this pound of beef, there must be consumed a certain 
quantity of protein, fatty substances, and carbohydrates, and this 
consumption must necessarily vary with each animal. If we could 
establish an average, then we could approximate the value of 
each of the elements upon which this meat production depends. 
Purchasing feeds. It is always recommended when purchasing feeds to obtain a 
list of market prices and determine by a very careful calculation 
which is the most desirable for the object in view. Such efforts 
may mean a dail}' saving of ten or twelve cents per ration per 
diem. The calculation should be largely based upon the man- 
ner in which the protein may be obtained under the most 
economical conditions, and these data always vary not only 
with the feed, but with the year. 



I 



COST OF RATIONS. 63 

It is important that the farmer should know when purchasing 
feeding stuff just what its source and its nature are. Consider- 
able fraud frequently exists in this respect, and various wastes 
are introduced upon the market that have only a secondary 
nutritive value. 

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station proposes the 
following rules: 

1. A ration to contain 30 to 45 per cent, protein and 50 to 60 
per cent, carbohydrates: Cotton seed meal, linseed meal and 
gluten meal. 

2. A ration to contain 20 to 30 per cent, protein and 66 to 
70 per cent, carbohydrates : Gluten feeds, dried brewers' grain, 
malt sprouts, buckwheat, middlings, etc. 

3. A ration to contain 14 to 20 per cent, protein and 70 to 75 
per cent, carbohydrates: Middlings, from wheat and rye. 

4. A ration to contain 8 to 14 per cent, protein and 75 to 85 
per cent, carbohydrates: Cereals, grains, hominy, etc. 

The cost of the ration should be as low as possible, so that Cost of rations, 
the results obtained will be at least equal to cost of fodders. 
Just within what limits the farmer can profitably grow his own 
fodders is a question we cannot here discuss. All things being 
equal one fact is certain, he saves the cost of transportation. 
Oil meal for example can be more profitably utilized for milk 
production near large cities than it could be for cattle fattening 
on distant farms. Oats are more suitable for feeding working 
animals than they would be for stall-fed cattle. Consequently 
one must take into consideration the value of the product used. 
If the farmer has not on hand any so-called concentrated 
fodder, it becomes of the first importance that he purchase what 
is needed from outside. Fodders must be considered collect- 
ively and not separately. 



PART SECOND. 



Feeding Beets to Cattle. 

Preliminary It frequently happens that the beet crop is very large, due to 
remarl<s. careful cultivation, or to neglect. In the latter case the roots 
are big, and cannot be advantageously used at the factory. . If 
these are left on the hands of the farmer — as is frequently the 
case — he becomes discouraged, and hesitates to renew his efforts 
at sugar-beet cultivation. If, on the other hand, he can find a 
profitable use for his roots as feed, he will consider beets from 
an entirely different standpoint. On several farms to which the 
writer's attention has been called, beets have been fed to cattle, 
and the fact has now become a source of trouble to the manu- 
facturer. 

In these cases, the farmers argue that they can make more 
money by feeding direct than by selling roots to the factory, 
with the idea of subsequently utilizing the refuse pulp (?). 

Many farmers throughout the country are willing to contract 
to grow small areas of beets and to subsequently use the roots 
* for cattle-feeding; the results have been most satisfactory to all 
interested. Capitalists can form some idea of what the chances 
are for a satisfactory crop of beets in any given vicinity, and the 
farmer, in the meantime, is gaining experience with this special 
crop at no money loss to himself. The advantages that have 
followed the introduction of a succulent ration with corn have 
long since been recognized everywhere in Continental Europe. 

In an emergency, beets may be used for feeding cattle, but 
it is a mistake to suppose that more money is to be made from 
milk and flesh by feeding roots direct than is possible by use of 
the product after sugar has been extracted. It is also a mistake 
to imagine that large beets* give the best results; it is unneces- 

*The total dry matter contained in roots diminishes with their size. Sugar 
beets are very poor in nitrogen, but their percentage of dry matter is com- 

(64) 



STEAMING oil COOKING. 65 

sary to enter into a dollar-and-cent argument which would be 
beyond the scope of the present writing. 

What nature does in the field, science must accomplish in the Preparation of 
stable, which is to furnish to the animal being fed a ration that ^^^^^ ^ 
is not only suited to the daily requirement, but that will be 
eaten with relish. 

Many farmers make the mistake of attempting to feed whole 
beets to cattle. Under such circumstances the results obtained 
are not what they should be. Beets should be properly sliced 
and combined with other fodders. The size of the slice has an 
important influence; if too large, there is danger to the animals 
from choking, and several instances of this are on record. 
This difficulty is never to be feared when using residuary- 
diffusion cossettes from factory. The importance of a thorough 
crushing, grinding, or slicing, as the case may be, is made evi- 
dent when we consider that the digestibility of fodder depends 
upon its combination with the gastric juice of the stomach; and 
when the assimilation is not what was expected, it may be 
largelj' due to the improperly-prepared food that was used. 

In certain cases there are important advantages to be derived Steaming or 
from warming or cooking fodders; the practice, however, as to c»»l<"''8-t 
beets is b}^ no means general. Cows are willing to eat more 
warm food than cold, which fact realizes the desired end, that 
of increasing their weight. Furthermore, steaming 10 to 15 
minutes, at a pressure of three atmospheres, has the effect of 
reducing to a homogeneous mass the straw and general waste 

paratively high. In very large beets grown upon highly manured soils, not 
more than J of their percentage of albuminoids is nitrogen. This fact fre- 
quently leads to error, as the ultimate results obtained are not compatible 
with the theoretical feeding value of the roots used. Sheep fed upon beet 
roots digested 98 per cent, of the carbohydrates contained in the ration. 

fThis cooking is an additional expense: calculations as regards cost would 
have but little value, for this would vary for each case considered. It is for 
each farmer to determine whether the operation is profitable or not. The 
early theories respecting steam driving out alcohol, and other volatile sub- 
stances that would be irritants, are most amusing. Certain farmers went so 
far as to assert that during certain epidemics of pneumonia, cattle fed upon 
fermented beets not steamed, died, Avhilst others receiving regular rations of 
sliced and cooked beets lived through the plague. 

5 



66 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAH, ETC. 



around the barn, that are combined with beets in proi)ortions 
depending upon scarcity of standard fodders; 75 lbs. steamed 
beets pe?' diem is a good average. Under all circumstances, 
straws used should be properly chopped. In some cases the 



Fig. 1. 




Vertical and Sovizontal Section of Ziednc's Seet- Steaming Pits. 

importance of cooking is very evident. With hogs, the increase 
of weight after cooking of the food is very striking. 

A description of a steaming process, combined with fermen- 
tation, is of interest. The mode given herewith is the one used 



l! 



STEAMING OR COOKING. 



G7 



on Mr. Leduc's farm at Beaurevoir, France. About 125 acres 
were cultivated in beets, and the crop obtained was fed to cattle. 
It is argued that the money profits are three times greater than 
from land devoted to the customary pasturage. Mr. Leduc 
prepared the beets in two ways, the method adopted depending 
upon the season. In winter the roots were steamed, and in 
summer fermented by the natural heat. The steaming was 
effected in six pits, arranged in two rows of three each as shown 
in Fig. 1. 

These rows were separated by walls, between which were 
located the pipes requisite for steaming; boards placed on the 
top of the walls permitted the workmen to fill or empty the pits 
as occasion might demand. At no great distance from these 
pits were located the beet washer and slicer, and these were 
connected with a stationary steam-engine, which also worked 
the water-pump. The necessary steam was furnished by a six- 
horse-power boiler. The beets were thrown into the washer by 
hand; after leaving it, they glided into the slicer, which may be 
of but cheap construction. The cossettes thus 
obtained were shoveled into the pits before 
mentioned and combined with about one-ninth 
of their weight of chopped straw of various 
kinds (colza, wheat, etc.). As to the mixing 
in the pits, especial care should be given to 
prevent this sliced mass remaining in heaps, 
since the steam would then not have a free 
circulation through it. 

The bottom of each pit is properly cemented 
or paved and an opening is left for a pipe with 
six arms to suppl}^ the steam. Over each end 
of these arms may be found a sort of chimney, 
shown in Fig. 2. These are closed at the top 
and perforated on the sides with down-slanting 
orifices, which effectually throw the steam in 
all directions. These chimneys are placed in 
position only w^hen the pits are being filled 
with sliced beets and straw, and are withdrawn after the steam- 
ing is finished. The steamed mass is then taken from the pits 



Fig. 2. 




Detail 
of Chimney. 



68 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

and placed in cemented tanks, of a capacity each of about 
20 cubic meters (26 cubic yards). The pit emptied one 
day is filled the next with about 10,000 kilograms (22,000 
pounds), composed, as before stated, of 9,000 kilograms of 
chopped beets and 1,000 kilograms of chopped straw. In about 
twelve hours the mass begins to ferment, throwing off vapors 
charged with perceptible quantities of alcohol; immediately 
thereafter it is fed to the live stock which eat it with avidity. 
At Mr. Leduc's farm each calf is fed twice a day with 5 
kilograms (11 pounds) of this fermented fodder, adding 250 
grams of oil-cake. The fattening is effected in variable periods, 
depending upon many conditions; ninety days, however, is 
considered to be a fair average. From this we may con- 
clude that the total consumption was 450 kilograms of fer- 
mented mass with a gain of about 50 to 55 pounds. This 
fermented mass may be kept in a perfect state of preservation 
for an entire year. Roots, on the other hand, may be preserved 
in silos for several of the winter months without any appreciable 
change in their nourishing qualities; their perfect preservation, 
however, during the summer is. practically impossible. 

Especial care is taken to compress the sliced beets so that the 
fermentation may be effected evenly throughout the mass. 
When the silos are filled, the upper surface is covered with from 
six to eight inches of earth. After a short time fermentation 
ceases and the mass is in a condition to be kept for a consider- 
able length of time, as the carbonic acid evolved will prevent 
any putrid fermentation. Mr. Leduc's experiments have shown 
that this food is sufficiently delicate to be eaten with advantage 
by young lambs, as they all remained in a perfectly healthy con- 
dition. These experiments were limited to some 4,000 sheep. 
It is also asserted that two cows may be well kept for an entire 
year on 12 tons of beets, the result of one acre of land, while, 
under the ordinary French system of pasturing, at least three 
acres would be needed to obtain an equal result. 
Fermentation.* A reasonable fermentation is without doubt an advantage in 

* The experiments of Hellriegel and Lucanus appear to show, that a prelim- 
inary fermentation of rye straw in no way increased its digestibility. Experi- 
ments of Hornberger show that steaming of certain fodders, such as meadow 
hay, diminished very considerably the digestibility of its protein. 



BEETS AND PULP COMPARED. 69 

the preparation of rations in which beets are the basis. The 
operation requires considerable care, because if the proper heat- 
ing limit is passed, the fodder becomes unfit food for cattle. 
The manner of conducting the fermentation process should de- 
pend upon the ambient temperature. It has been suggested 
that a series of boxes be placed near the animals being fed, 
wherein the mixture of sliced beets, chopped straw, (9 lbs. 
beets for 1 lb. straw), etc., is placed; each box to contain a 
quantity corresponding to the ration of the particular animal 
(sheep 11 lb. mixture plus J lb. oil cake) being fattened. 
When feeding-time arrives the mass should have undergone a 
fermentation that gives the best results, as determined by ex- 
perience. 

The main object of this process is to soften those portions of Maceration, 
a fodder that would not be readily acted upon by gastric juice. 
When in contact with water these particles swell and break 
open, greatly increasing their digestibility. The influence of 
water upon a mixture of sliced beets and straw is made evident 
by the fact, that when the operation is thoroughly performed, 
the digestibility is increased nearly 50 per cent. Maceration 
may render excellent service in case of feeding mother beets to 
cattle; these, after the seed stalk has been cut off, are more 
fibrous in their composition than normal beets. Roots of this 
kind contain very little sugar, considerable ash, and are very 
watery. 

Comparative Experiments. 

A series of experiments were made in France some years since Beets and pulp 
to determine practically whether sugar beets direct from the cinpared. 
field had any advantage over pulp obtained from factory. In 
these practical trials ten cows of about the same weight were used; 
the five fed with beets weighed 5, 100 lbs. , the five fed with pulp 
weighed about the same. During the experiment one half 
received 172|- tons of beets and the other 189J tons of pulp. 
The five cows fed with beets gave 1,136 quarts milk that con- 
tained an average of 39.9 per cent, fatty substance; the five fed 
with pulp yielded 1,104 quarts milk testing 33.9 per cent, fatty 
substance. 



70 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

No special difference could be noticed in the taste of the milk 
in either case. The butter from the pulp-fed cows was of a fine 
yellow color. Numerous other examples could be given, among 
which may be mentioned extended experiments in feeding 
1,660 sheep for 120 days with beets. The ration consisted of 
11 lbs. beets to 1 lb. hay, 1.1 lb. oil cake and 1.1 lb. straw. 
The increased value of the sheep was two dollars per head. 
The same experiments were repeated with diffusion beet-pulp, 
and the conclusions were, that this residuum was much more 
profitable than beets direct from the field. 

Other experiments upon sheep were made to determine just 
what the relations were between the feeding value of distillery 
pulp and sugar beets. The daily rations during these experi- 
ments were, for the first week, 6.6 lbs. fermented beet slices, 
2.2 lbs. hay, 0.7 lb. straw and 0.4 lb. chopped straw. During 
the second week the amount of beets and pulp fed -per diem was 
increased to 13 lbs. 

After 84 days the total increased weight of the sheep fattened 
with beets was 19,250 lbs., Avhile with pulp it was 16,000 lbs. 
The average weight of manure obtained with beets was 8.4 lbs., 
with pulp 11 lbs. ; the quality for fertilizing purposes of the 
pulp manure was inferior to the beet manure. The conclusions 
were that 100 lbs. beets have the same value for feeding pur- 
poses as 180 lbs. pulp. If beets sell at the factory at $4.00 per 
ton, the cost of the total ration would be 18 cents; if pulp can 
be purchased at $1.50 per ton at the factory, the total ration 
will cost 12 cents, which shows that pulp is decidedly more 
profitable for farmers' purposes than beets. 
Sugar beets and Experiments were made to determine whether there was 
mangels com- gj-jy advantage in feeding a beet of the mangel order over the 
^^''^ ' use of sugar beets of a satisfactory quality, cultivated according 

to the now accepted rules of close planting. Evidently it costs 
more per ton to cultivate a good beet than a root belonging to 
the same family, but receiving comparatively little attention. 
The experiments we have under consideration were made in 
1898-99, and were conducted in three series; in each lot of 
sheep fed there was the same number of animals, and they were 
furnished with a weight of roots obtained from a given area 



SUGAR BEETS AND MANGELS COMPARED. 



71 



regardless of their feeding qualities; under these circumstances 
the results obtained were comparable. The roots of the mangel 
type were known as the Tankard, and two varieties of sugar 
beets were used, one from mother beets testing 10 per cent, sugar 
and the other a rich rose-neck beet, the seed having been ob- 
tained from a mother beet testing 15 per cent, sugar. The Tank- 
ards were cultivated in rows 20-| inches apart, the spacing in the 
rows being 23|- inches; the average beet was planted in rows 
11.7 inches apart and spaced at 17|^ inches, while for the supe- 
rior beet the rows were 11.7 inches and spacing 15J inches. 
When the beets were harvested their analysis and weighing 
showed the following results: 

COMPABISON OF TaXKARD AND SUGAR BeETS. 



Tankard . . • • 
Average beet. 
Superior beet, 



Dry Substances, 
Per acre. 




Yield, 
Per acre. 



18 tons. 
17.6 '^ 
14.8 " 



It will be noted that the dry matter per acre is in favor of 
the beets. 

The ration of Tankard beets was 6.6 lbs per diem, while of 
the average beet the allowance was 6.4 lbs., and of the superior 
beet the weight fed was 5.3 lbs., these being all obtained from 
an equal superficial area. 

The beets were sliced into cossettes and combined with 0.4 
lbs. of wheat balls per animal. The mixture was made 24 
hours in advance, so as to allow for a certain fermentation. 
An allowance of 2.2 lbs. of hay was also fed to each sheep. 
The ration was divided into two parts, which were fed at sepa- 
rate times, and the sheep had placed at their disposal salt and 
water according to their special individual requirements. The 
experiments on each lot of sheep lasted for twenty days with 
each variety of beet being tested. 

The increase in weight of the sheep considered in lots was as 
follows : 



72 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 



Comparative Increase in Weight of Sheep Fed with Tankard and 
WITH Sugar Beets. 



First lot of sheep . 
vSecond lot of sheep 
Third lot of sheep. 

Total 



Tajs^kard. 



7.0 lbs. 
6.4 " 
3.9 " 



17.3 lbs. 



Average 
Beet. 



15.2 lbs. 

13.0 " 

9.9 " 



38.1 lbs. 



Superior 
Beet. 



9.7 lbs. 
10.3 " 
8.3 " 



28.3 lbs. 



The argument that necessarily follows upon the examination 
of these figures is that the average beet is very superior to the 
other two, but even the superior beet gives more profitable 
results from a fattening standpoint than does the mangel. If 
we consider the cost of cultivation of the several varieties of 
beets tested, it stands to reason that more seed is needed for 
rows 11.7 inches apart than for rows separated by '.^O^^ inches; 
the weeding is also more difficult and expensive in the latter 
than in the former case, this being also true for the harvesting 
for the reason that there are more beets to collect from the field. 
All facts considered, it was found that the surplus cost in this 
case was $2.40 per acre over and above that existing for roots 
cultivated at greater distances between the rows. The value 
upon the market of the increased weights in question was $1.26, 
$2.80 and $2.26 respectively. If we bring into our calculation 
the cost of production, we find that the profit from the average 
beet was $46 per acre and from the rich beet only $31, while for 
the Tankard it was very much less. These results show beyond 
cavil the importance of growing beets, even of an average 
quality, according to accepted rules of close planting when 
intended for feeding purposes, rather than to attempt cultivat- 
ing roots of low grades and bj' methods already too long con- 
tinued. The increased profits more than compensate for the 
extra cost and trouble. 

When growing roots for cattle-feed, remember that a root of a 
moderate size is wanted, not over '6 pounds being a moderate 
yield, as the larger the individual root the lower will be its 



SUGAR BEETS AND MANGELS COMPARED. 



73 



nutritive equivalent. If we determine the pounds of plant 
food taken up per ton of mangels and beets, with their leaves, 
we would have the following average analysis: 

P1.ANT Food Taken Up by Mangels and Sugak Beets. 



Crop Grown. 




96 -i 


a 

.2 




2 be 











TJ 




One ton each. 


c 
2 


•h.2 
§1 


'T3 

§.2 


<4H 




R.2 
c 



CM 


to" 







!§o 






lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Mangels, root 


4.3 


8.7 


3.4 


1.1 


0.9 


1.5 


0.6 


1.8 


0.5 ■ 
1.2J 




Mangels, leaf 


2.3 

6.6 


3.2 


3.1 


1.3 


1.2 


0.6 


0.8 


2.2 


38.2 




11.9 


6.5 


2.4 


2.1 


2.1 


1.4 


4.0 




Sugar-beets, root with \ 
necks J 


5.3 


7.7 


1.6 


1.0 


1.5 


2.3 


0.7 


0.3 


0.6 ~ 




Sugar-beets, leaf 


2.1 


2.6 


1.9 


2.2 


2.1 


0.8 


0.9 


0.6 


0.3 - 


34.5 




7.4 


10.3 


3.5 


3.2 


3.6 


3.1 


1.6 


0.9 


0.9. 





This shows the ash absorbed by growing one ton of mangels to 
be 38.2 pounds, while with beets it is 34.5 pounds, thus proving 
mangels more exhausting to the soil than sugar-beets. If we 
admit that 20 tons of mangels may be grown to the acre, a total 
of 764 pounds of plant food will be absorbed. If 10 tons are 
an average yield to the acre for sugar-beets, the ash taken up 
by that crop will be 345 pounds. Consequently we are not far 
from correct in asserting that by neglectful cultivation it will 
take one-half the time to ruin the soil in growing mangels that 
it does with beets. If, on the other hand, scientific rules of 
cultivation are practiced when growing beets, the diminution of 
the fertility of the land need not be dreaded. Beets raised for 
a sugar factory should, on general principles, have their necks 
and leaves sliced off before they are hauled from the field where 
they were grown, then the greater portion of the salts, etc., 
taken up is returned. Those varieties of mangels raised for 
stock feed grow nearly as much above as beneath ground, 



74 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



rutabagas. 



especially when manured by the leaf-stripping. Neck slicing 
is not effected, for the reason that it would diminish b}'' nearly 
one-half the yield of the crop, under which circumstances it 
would not be profitable. The conclusion is, that those farmers 
who grow mangels for other purposes than their own stock use, 
are practicing a system of husbandry not to be encouraged. 
Sugar-beets From time to time it is urged that rutabagas be more exten- 
compared with giyel}'- cultivated, it being argued that the farmer in the long 
run would derive more actual advantage from such a crop than 
is possible from sugar beets when the object in view is cattle- 
feeding. We are willing to admit that the yield per acre is 
greater with rutabagas than with sugar beets, but there are other 
issues to be considered besides the yield. Upon general prin- 
ciples the main effort in sugar-beet cultivation has always been 
to increase the sugar percentage and dry substances contained 
in the beet, rather than to obtain as far as possible heavy yields. 
With rutabagas on the other hand the aim has always been to 
get heavy yields regardless of every other condition, and as a 
result 36 tons have been obtained to the acre. Sugar-beets may 
be said to contain from 75 to 90 per cent, water; in the case of 
rutabagas with heavy yields the root is very watery and contains 
only about 10 per cent, dry substances. The table herewith 
shows the analysis of a rutabaga of a heavy yield variety and of 
a superior type of sugar-beet: 



Comparative Analyses of a Eutabaga and a Sugar-Beet. 



Variety. 




1 le 

p 


O -2 
u 3 


rO CO 

-Jj o 


CO 

"el 

• -o 

o 




3 


Superior sugar-beet 


81.0 
91.1 


19.0 

8.9 


2.3 

1.3 


0.2 
0.1 


14.6 
6.3 


0.7 
1.1 


1.0 
3 







The actual nutrients are in far greater proportion in the 
sugar-beet than in the forage variety. Consequently when feed- 
ing, weight for weight, the two kinds of beets, the benefits that 



COMPARED WITH RUTABAGAS. 



75 



will accrue Avill be much greater in one case than in the other. 
It must be thoroughly understood that we do not recommend 
high testing beets for cattle-feeding, but on the contrary, a 
variety containing 10 per cent, sugar rather than the forage 
types, averaging about 5 per cent. The difference in the total dry 
substance in the two cases would not be much less than 1,000 
lbs. per acre, an amount which means considerable additional 
money returns. The cost of cultivation for the heavy yield 
varieties is less than when cultivating in rows nearer together; 
but this difference is very slight in comparison with the actual 
advantage gained. At the present time many of the European 
seed-growing specialists are concentrating their efforts to create 
what is known as a semi-sugar-beet, possessing certain char- 
acteristic qualities of a superior and inferior beet. If this 
problem can be solved the farmer would then have a crop at his 
disposal which he could for a term of years cultivate and be- 
come accustomed to, without losing money in awaiting the 
building of a beet-sugar factory in his vicinity. A well-known 
agronomist has made some experiments with the new variety 
in question, the results being as follows: 

Comparative Yields of Foeage and Semi-Sl'gar Beets. 



Yield 

Dry substance 

Sugar 

Nitrogenous substance 



Yield to the Acre. 



Forage beet. 



14 tons. 
4,000 lbs. 
2,300 " 

202 



Semi-sugar beet. 



16 tons. 
7,000 lbs. 
4,400 " 

350 



This means an excess of 3,000 lbs. in favor of the new variety 
for dr}^ substance alone. In these special experiments the ex- 
cessive drought had an important influence on the yield of the 
forage variety. We consider these facts are of sufficient 
moment for our leading agricultural stations to give the subject 



Tl 



76 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

their special attention. They would thus do considerable 

towards advancing the prosperity of the tiller in their respective 

sections. 

Oreen corn , The question of ensilage has for many years attracted much 

fodder vs. sugar attention throughout the country, and the subject is interesting 
beets for cdttic 

J . and worthy of every agriculturalist's consideration. 

By supplying an economical green fodder to live stock 
during the winter months milch cows may be kept in an 
excellent condition. For many years past, farmers of the 
southern parts of France have successfully adopted a system of 
green corn ensilage, which, in the generality of cases, has given 
excellent results. As to its profitable application in the United 
States, experiments have led to very contradictory results, and 
in consequence we are not prepared either to recommend or 
condemn the practice from a financial point of view. The silos 
generally used are built of masonry and internally cemented, 
their cost depending upon their capacity. If but few cows are 
to be fed, the siloing of their food would not be judicious, as 
the cost of the fodder per pound would then be considerably 
increased. Before the green corn-stalks are placed in the silos 
they are sliced and mixed with chopped straw. The hauling 
of the stalks to the site of ensilage, their preparation, etc., are 
all operations the cost of which depends upon the facilities 
offered. When in large quantities the bulk would evidently 
considerably diminish its cost of transportation per ton. As 
regards this many enthusiasts contend that, under favorable 
circumstances, it may be accomplished at forty cents a ton. 

While excellent results may be obtained by feeding ensilaged 
green corn to cattle, the exhausting effect this practice has upon 
the soil should not be overlooked. Many farmers are well 
aware of the importance of "plowing under" corn stalks after 
the corn harvest is over, in which case the soil gets back a 
large percentage of the elements absorbed by the plant in grow- 
ing. On the other hand, if green corn is fed to cattle, and if 
the resulting manure is spread on the soil, a portion of the 
plant-food will be lost — this fact applies to fodders in general. 
If a comparison be made between the exhausting effect from 
growing one acre of green corn, and the same area planted with 



GREEN CORN FODDER. 



77 



sugar beets, it will be found that the latter crop, although not 
as nourishing as the former, is by far the more beneficial to the 
soil, and not nearly as exhausting. In comparing mangels with 
sugar beets, we have previously called attention to the percent- 
age of plant-food taken up by one ton of beets and mangels. 
In the same manner we may compare the most important of 
these elements absorbed by one ton of green fodder with those 
of one ton of beets. 

Plant Foods Absokbed by One Ton of Sugar-Beets and Green Corn. 





Potassa. 


Soda. 


Mag- 
nesia. 


Lime. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Sugar-beets 

Green corn 


7.7 
4.3 


1.6 
0.5 


1.5 
1.4 


1.0 
1.6 


2.3 

1.3 


5.3 

3.2 



These figures prove that, ton to ton, sugar beets are more ex- 
hausting than green corn; but if we admit that the yield of 
green corn is twice that of sugar beets, we would obtain the fol- 
lowing figures: 



Plant Foods Absorbed to the Acre by Ten Tons of Beets and 
Twenty Tons of Green Corn. 



Green corn 
Sugar-beets 



Potassa. 



86 
77 lbs. 



Soda. 



10 
16 lbs. 



-6 



Mag- 



28 
15 lbs. 



13 



Lime. 



32 

10 lbs. 



22 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



26 
23 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



64 
53 lbs. 



11 



In other words, green corn takes up per acre 6 lbs. less soda, 13 
lbs. more magnesia, 22 lbs. more lime, 3 lbs. more phosphoric 
acid, and 11 lbs. more nitrogen. 

These figures are apparently insignificant, but when the 
deficiency in the soil is to be made up, the dollar cost of the 



78 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

fertilizers over and above that required after a beet-crop, is 
worthy of consideration. 

If we compare the total nourishing qualities of twenty tons of 
green corn before ensilage with 10 tons of sugar beets, we shall 
find that the total of digestible nutrients is 3,320 pounds for 
green corn and 3,560 pounds for sugar beets, or a difference of 
240 pounds. Such are the facts at the harvesting. After several 
months have elapsed, the ensilage has undergone considerable 
change, and its volume has been purposely diminished by 
weights placed on its upper surface. If great care has been 
taken in preparing this ensilage, there is but slight danger of 
excessive fermentation caused by oxygen remaining impris- 
oned in the mass. If we compare these difficulties with the 
simple siloing of beets, it will be readily seen that these roots, 
for winter feeding, offer many advantages over green corn- 
fodder. Their siloing may be effected at a nominal expense on 
the ground upon Avhich the roots were grown, it being then 
simply necessary to place them in triangular j)iles and cover 
their outer surface with a thickness of earth varying with the 
severity of the winter. There they remain for several months, 
undergoing practically no change in'nourishing qualities. Their 
consumption need take place only when required at the stable. 
The farmer consequently need not make an immediate outlay of 
money for building silos, or hauling the entire crop without 
delay, whereas it is admitted that the quality of green corn fodder 
decreases slightly a few days after cutting, if not siloed at once, 
large and small Many farmers are under a very erroneous impression regard- 
beets in cattle- j^^^g ^^q yalue of reasonably small beets for cattle-feeding, and 
'"^' continue in some of the New England States to cultivate man- 

golds with considerable distance between rows; they thus obtain 
crops of 30 and 35 tons to the acre. Some of these roots have 
an individual weight of nearly 20 lbs.; analysis would show 
them to be of a very spongy texture and to contain not more 
than 8.5 per cent, dry matter and 91.5 per cent, water, holding 
in solution about 6 per cent, sugar. Such roots are frequently 
fed to cattle during the winter in quantities corresponding to 
132 lbs. per diem, or 11 lbs. of dry matter, while if small beets 
of this variety had been used the dry matter would have been 
at least 20 lbs. 



EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING BEETS. 79 

During visits to agricultural fairs in several farming cen- 
tres of the country, it has frequently been noticed that the 
rural population are attracted by these giant beets. Their use 
should be absolutely abandoned. If farmers persist in using 
mangolds let them be cultivated in rows much nearer together 
than they now are. The texture of the roots thus obtained will 
be firmer and the dry matter percentage much higher, Avhich 
means a far greater fattening efficiency than has hitherto been 
realized. 

If we admit that one acre of land, under favorable conditions, Sugar-beets 
jnelds two and one-half tons of clover-hay, or about 5,000 •"•"'e profitable 

pounds, it would be sufficient to feed a milch cow for -^M^ ^ . , „, 
^ ' . **.^ hay for cattle 

171 days, assuming that a cow's daily average consumption is Mier. 
35 pounds, which figure is allowable. The total digestible 
nutrients which this ration contains is 16.45 pounds. Ten tons 
of sugar-beets contain 3,560 pounds of digestible nutrient, or 
sufficient to feed a cow for ~ = 215 days, showing that the 

16. 40 *^ ^ "--^ 

resulting theoretical nutritive product from one acre would feed 
a cow 44 days longer, if beets were grown rather than hay. 

Experiments in Feeding Beets to Co^vs and Slieep in Preliminary re. 
tlie United States. marks. 

We are convinced that the introduction of the sugar beet into 
farming centers of the country is destined to bring about great 
changes in the existing dairying process. Milk and butter will 
become cheaper than they now are, and the community at large 
will be benefited. To have during the winter months a fodder 
such as beet-pulp refuse from a factory, that may be purchased 
for a nominal sum, has advantages for stall-fed cattle that no 
other feed (possibly excepting corn ensilage) can offer. 

Before discussing the question in all its details it is important 
to know first what has been done in feeding beets to farm 
animals in the United States. It is to be regretted that no more 
than a passing interest has been taken in this important subject 
bj' the leading experiment stations of the country. Most of the 
directors of stations realize that the question has been neglected, 
and they propose giving it, in the not-distant future, the atten- 
tion it deserves. On the other hand, the Ohio experiment sta- 



80 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

tion has done some excellent work. In Nebraska the active 
interest shown in beet cultivation has led to a general utilization 
of thousands of tons of refuse pulp from Grand Island and Nor- 
folk factories. 

As farmers are not prone to scientific observation, it will fall 
upon the experiment stations to take the matter in hand. Prof. 
Nicholson says: "Next to the matter of sugar production 
itself, I regard it [feeding cattle on beets and beet refuse] as the 
most important question to be studied experimentally in con- 
nection with the beet-sugar industry." 

The question of sugar-beet feeding has been very fully dis- 
cussed by Dr. Goessmann, of Massachusetts, who for years used 
beets in rations for cattle. He says:* " Sugar-beets when fed 
pound for pound of dry matter, in place of hay rations, with the 
same kind and quantity of grain-feed, have raised, almost with- 
out exception, the temporary yield of milk, exceeding, as a rule, 
the corn ensilage in that direction. * * * Corn ensilage, as well 
as roots, proved best when fed in place of one-fourth to one- 
half of the full hay ration. From twenty-five to twenty-seven 
pounds of roots, or from thirty-five to forty pounds of corn 
ensilage per day (with all the hay needful to satisfy the animal 
in either case) seems, for various reasons, a good proportion, 
allowing the stated kind and quantity of grain-feed." 

In comparing beets with turnips, in 1888, Dr. Goessmann 
said that he considered one ton of the improved variet}'- of good 
sugar beets equal to 2 or 2^ tons of turnips. The exj)eriments 
in Illinois commenced some years since. 

In Pennsylvania Prof. Armsby has given sugar beets a most 
extended trial. The following statement emanates from the 
Pennsylvania State College Experiment Station: " It must not 
be forgotten that according to the standard authorities, the sugar 
beet and its pulp may be considered entirely digestible; further- 
more, it stimulates the appetite for other fodders, which silage 
does not do to the same extent. However, in the feeding ex- 
periment, involving two lots of five cows each, and covering 

* Eighth Annual Eeport of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Mas- 
sachusetts. 



CORN SILAGE AND ROOTS. 81 

three periods of twelve days, one hundred pounds of digestible 
matter of the silage ration produced 131.92 lbs. of milk and 
7.21 lbs. of butter; and with the root ration 137.30 lbs. of milk 
and 6.53 lbs. of butter. When the two lots of cows were fed 
alike, and on a combined ration of roots and silage, the silage 
lot produced per 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed 139 lbs. 
milk and 6.79 lbs. of butter; the root lot 150 lbs. milk and 
6.46 lbs. butter." 

At the Pennsylvania State College * the supply of roots was Comparison of 
very small and the period during which they were fed was ''*"^" ^"^^^ 
short. Every farmer is aware, from a practical standpoint, of 
the increased yield of richer milk when feeding roots in connec- f-^^^^ 
tion with, or in place of, corn stored during the winter. 

Feeding with roots (beets, mangel-wurzels and rutabagas) 
did not take the place of silage until the third week of the ex- 
periment. During one week only 31 lbs. sugar-beets were fed; 
the week that followed 52 lbs. mangel-wurzels were used, and 
these were followed by 63| lbs. rutabagas in place of 40 lbs. 
silage. During the entire experiment hay was fed. The trials 
are to be repeated on a future occasion. It was concluded that 
more and richer milk was obtained while roots were used. 

An interesting fact is, that while silage, etc. , were constantly 
refused by the cows, they ate with avidity the entire quantity 
of roots offered. While with silage ration the average milk ob- 
tained was 14.29 lbs. per diem, the average was 18.01 lbs. with 
roots. The fatty matter in the milk in the first case was 0.72 
lb., in the other, 0.81 lb. The water drunk with a silage ration 
was 36 lbs., but with root ration it was only 28 lbs. The 
quantity of water used continued to decrease when silage was 
substituted for roots. 

The two cows used in Dr. Goessmann's experiments f were 
crosses .of native stock and Ayrshires; they were at same milk- 
ing periods, four weeks after calving. The daily diet of both 
cows consisted, at the beginning of the experiment, of 3J lbs. of 

*Eeportof 1890. 

t Bulletin No. 22, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, October, 
1886. 

6 



82 FEEDING WITH SUGAE BEETS, SUGAK, ETC. 

corn-meal, an equal weight of wheat bran and all the hay they 
would eat. The same fodder mixture, as far as quality and 
quantity are concerned, was also used for some time as daily 
feed at the end of the experiment; the object in view was to 
determine the natural shrinkage in daily yield of milk during 
the time occupied by the experiment. 

On examining the results obtained we find, that for one cow 
the yield in milk fell from 14.2 quarts per diem to 12.8 quarts as 
soon as 20.6 lbs. corn ensilage was substituted for 27 lbs. beets 
in the daily ration. With the other cow a similar change took 
place, but not so suddenly. The beets used in these experi- 
ments were of a kind known as Lane's improved; their per- 
centage of dry matter was 16. With regular sugar-beets, of an 
imported variety, more dry matter could have been furnished 
for the same weight of roots eaten. In estimating the cost of 
■ feed per quart of milk, $5.00 per ton were allowed for beets that 
Avere in reality worth very much less; and in consequence the 
cost of the product is on the wrong side of the balance sheet. 
Corn silage The Wisconsin experiments * in feeding to sheep various fod- 
and clover ^[ers, with the view of determining which is most profitable as a 
SI age vs. ^,qqI ^^^^ meat producer, offer but a secondary interest so far as 
sugar-beets. ^ ' n i .. i. 

sugar beets are concerned. A flock of twenty-four sheep was 

experimented with, the first series of twelve being divided into 
three lots of four sheep each. These during the entire feeding 
season received daily the same quantities of grain and sugar 
beets; under such circumstances one cannot determine within 
what limits sugar beets influenced the results. 

In the second group of twelve the lots also consisted of four 
sheep each, the object being to make a comparison between corn 
silage, clover silage and sugar beets. We must take exception 
to one assertion, that "in all cases the sheep were given as 
much of the succulent foods as they Avould eat." During the 
first period of one week 112 lbs. of beets were fed to all; and 
this was continued for three weeks. The increase of weight, 
which was at first 6 lbs. per week, after the third week was 16 

* Eighth Annual Eeport of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Wis- 
consin, 1892. 



SILAGE AND FIELD BEETS. 83 

lbs. The total sugar beets then furnished was only 84 lbs. per 
week, and there followed a loss of 4 lbs. One month afterwards 
the increase of weight per week was 16 lbs., but the week after- 
wards it fell to a loss of 6 lbs. without any possible reason.* 

The increase of weight during eight weeks' feeding was 28 
lbs. with 756 lbs. sugar-beets, and it was 29 lbs. with 600 lbs. 
clover silage, but only 13 lbs. with 510 lbs. corn silage. Dur- 
ing this period all the sugar-beets furnished were eaten, while 
with clover silage 89 lbs. were refused. 

We are convinced that the sheep did not receive all the sugar- 
beets they could eat; the very fact that they ate all furnished 
shows this to have been the case. If the roots had been fed ad 
libitum we are sure that the increase of weight would have been 
far greater than that obtained in the experiment. 

The person who had charge of these experiments said that 
sugar-beets "were liked by the sheep, but they cannot be said 
to equal either of the other succulent fodders used. They are 
apt to induce scouring if fed in quantities of over 4 lbs. daily to 
each animal." We consider that further experiments are neces- 
sary in order to determine within what limits this is true. If 
4 lbs. is the limit per diem, why should 3 lbs. be subsequently 
fed? 

In the experiments to determine the influence of different 
rations on the growth of wool, sugar-beets are not a factor in the 
results, so they need not be considered in the present writing. 

There is as much difference between field beets and sugar Relative values of 
beets as there is between a poor mangel and sugar beets; hence ^''^9^ ^""^ ''^''' 

any conclusions drawn from experiments in feeding field beets /* ^ '" /'"'''' 
1 p 1 T . o -n o ? • duction of milk, 

to cattle lor the production oi milk are oi secondary import- 
ance as compared with the use of sugar beets; the dry matter 
in the two cases is very different. Experiments in feeding at 
the Ohio experiment station f were made with very large and 
coarse beets, and the results obtained are not as conclusive as if 
superior sugar beets had been used under the same conditions. 

* A winter ration said to give good results for rams weighing 180 lbs. is 3.3 
lbs. hay, 4.4 lbs. sugar-beets and 1.3 lb. vetch hay. 

t Vol. II., No. 3, second series; No. 10, June, 1889. 



84 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



It is interesting, however, to note that they held their own 
against the very best corn silage, under the eyes of thoroughly 
scientific investigators. 

A herd of twelve cows was sub-divided into four -lots, A, B, 
C, D, of three cows each. Great care was taken to have the 
conditions in each case exactly the same, as regards character- 
istics and milk-producing qualities. The cows during the 
entire experiment were fed upon a uniform ration of 10 lbs. 
clover hay, 2 lbs. corn meal and 4 lbs. wheat bran. A received 
40 lbs. corn silage per diem, and B 50 lbs. beets during the 
same interval. The following statement was made by the ex- 
perimenters : 

"The feeding of field beets has taught us that while most 
cows will take fifty pounds beets per day, without any unfavor- 
able effect upon health or appetite, it is not always safe to feed 
more than this quantity; and hence it was deemed advisable to 
increase the dry matter of the beet ration by five pounds of 
hay." 

In these experiments it is interesting to observe the fact, that 
from first to last the cows ate with avidity all beets placed at 
their disposal, and would have eaten more had it been given 
them. On the other hand, the silage refused by a single cow 
during a period of two weeks has been as high as 120.5 lbs. 
With a view to presenting the facts more plainly the following 
table has been prepared: 



Silage vs. Beets, Showing Feed Eefused. 



Series A, fed on silage 
Series B, fed on beets . 



Period I. 


Period II. 


Period III. 


Period IV. 






OJ 






aj 






d 






aj 


>, 




^ 


>» 




^ 


>> 




S 


>;• 




^ 


























M 


m 


OQ 


S 


pq 


CQ 


a 


pq 


cc 


W 


M 


03 












-. 


. 


« 


to 


. 


. 


_ 


























H 


H 


H 


H 


•-! 


H 


•"1 


H 


H 


H 


H 


I-; 


56.5 





186.0 


58.0 





147.0 


96.5 





159.5 


87.0 





263.0 


0.5 







1.0 







27.0 







24 








The fact that three cows should refuse 298.5 pounds hay and 



SILAGE AND FIELD BEETS. 



85 



755.5 lbs, silage during two months, does not show that the 
cows experimented on were highly pleased with the rations 
furnished. It may be noticed that all the beets offered were 
eaten, and only 32.5 lbs. -hay were refused. If towards the end 
of Period II slight changes had been made in the regime, we 
are convinced that all the hay in series B would have been eaten. 

The fat estimation in milk does not show that there was any 
special advantage of silage over beets. 

From the following table we conclude, that during two 
months the silage gave 707 lbs. milk, while beets during the 
same period gave 932 lbs. , or a difference of 225 lbs. milk in 
favor of beets. The gain in weight with silage, as compared 
with beets, can be of no possible moment, as it is not unusual 
to find important differences during an interval of 24 hours. 

Total Mile; Produced, and Gain and Loss in Weight. 



Series A, silage 
Series B, beets . 



Milk Produced. 
Period. 



I. II. III. IV. 



178.0 
230.0 



179.4 
225.9 



175.3 
239.6 



174.2 
236.1 



Gain(+) or Loss (- 
IN Weight. 

Period. 



II. m. IV 



+22 
—13 



+14 
+ 8 



+15 

+ 1 



—3 

+4 



It is to be regretted that a portion of the beets was lost dur- 
ing warm weather, and that the roots used in the second series 
of experiments were large and coarse, containing but 1L69 per 
cent, dry matter. The inferiority of such roots becomes evi- 
dent w^hen it is known that superior beets contain 24 per cent, 
dry matter. Roots such as used by the Ohio station were very 
little superior to ordinary mangels. Under these circumstances, 
in order to feed beets so that total dry matter should be equal 
to that contained in silage ration, the weight of beets fed 
reached 60 lbs. per diem. To the rations in each case six 
pounds of bran were added, with good clover hay fed ad libitum. 

These experiments showed that 14 lbs. of hay per diem were 



86 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



ample for silage-fed cows. On the other hand, the beet-fed 
cows consumed considerably more than that quantity; this was 
a very encouraging result, as previously mentioned. The 
principle of cattle-fattening, as already stated, is to force con- 
sumption of fodder and whatever causes this brings the de- 
sired result. While the silage ration was only 27 lbs. per diem, 
the stuff was not eaten with the same avidity as beets. The 
average daily yield of milk with and without beets in these 
experiments is shown in the following table: 



Average Daily Yield of Milk With and Without Beets in Eation. 
Ohio Station, 1890. 



Experiment No. 1- 
Experiment No. 2- 



Without beets. 



220 oz. 
191 oz. 



With beets. 



240 oz. 
214 oz. 



Advantage in 
favor of beets. 



20 oz. 
23 oz. 



During these experiments the weekly gain or loss of weight 
with and without beets was 4 to 14 lbs. in favor of beets. 
' ' There was a marked tendency to increase in live weight dur- 
ing the periods when beets were fed, and to fall off when on 
silage." As regards milk at the station, it was found that dur- 
ing 1890 " whenever the feed was changed to silage there was a 
rapid falling off in yield of milk, and whenever it was changed 
to beets this falling off was checked, and in several instances 
the flow increased. * ^ * In respect to the milk-flow, there- 
fore, the results * =^ * confirm those of previous years, indicat- 
ing that beets are more favorable to milk-production than corn 
silage." 

One of the most interesting features of these experiments 
was the decline in live weight with a decrease in flow of milk 
when feeding silage, which is a most important argument in 
favor of beets. 

Our readers should not forget that numerous European ex- 
periments point to the fact that when beets are fed all their dry 
matter is digested. On the other hand, experiments in M^is- 



SILAGE AND FIELD BEETS. 87 

consin, Pennsylvania, and other states, show that with silage 
63 per cent, only is assimilated. 

It is admitted that all items such as harvesting, siloing, etc., 
for beets, make the cost ^37.75 per acre, while for producing 
and siloing one acre of corn requires S31.25. The silage con- 
tained 4,400 lbs. digestible dry matter, while the beets con- 
tained 3,750 lbs. of the same. This difference would appear to 
counterbalance the 359 lbs. of milk in favor of beets, not to 
mention the increase of weight. A fact in this argument that is 
generally overlooked is, that for the sum allowed for cultivation 
of one acre of beets, superior sugar beets might be obtained 
averaging 18 per cent, dry matter. This means a total of 
nearly 6,000 lbs. digestible dry matter per acre. The cost of 
such in beets is 0. 6 c. , and in silage 0. 7 c. All these figures 
must vary with circumstances. 

The cows fed solely on beets consumed 20.1 lbs. dry matter 
per 1000 lbs. of their weight, while silage-fed cows consumed 
20.9 lbs. In both these cases the consumption was consider- 
ably below the standard of 24 lbs. The beet-fed cows were 
underfed, and we are convinced that if they had had the food 
they required, their milk-producing qualities would have been 
greater, and their weight would have increased instead of re- 
maining stationary, as it did during the eight weeks the experi- 
ment lasted. It would be interesting to draw some comparison 
as to the cost of feeding with silage and beets. If the yield of 
corn and beets is about the same per acre, the siloing of corn 
is very much more expensive than that of beets. The exhaust- 
ing effect of a beet crop upon the soil on a well-organized farm 
is nothing like as great as the average agronomist supposes, as 
at least 80 per cent, of all salts absorbed are returned in the 
shape of a fertilizer; the remaining 20 per cent, is in the 
milk sold. 

The problem of fattening animals properly is to make them 
eat as much as possible, since at least -^-^ of such food is retained 
and transformed mainly into fat. It is possible to reach a limit 
of increase of 4.5 lbs. per diem. It may seem incredible, but 
it is possible to force the consumption of dry matter to 44 lbs. 
per diem. The increase in weight continues until the end of 



88 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

second period; during the last period the ration should take a 
new shape. 

As regards the foregoing experiments, silage vs. beets, we 
would say: If the Ohio station had used beets of a quality culti- 
vated during 189] -92,* the roots would have averaged 15.5 per 
cent, dry matter instead of 10 per cent., as admitted in the 
above feeding experiments. Under these circumstances, about 
32 lbs. beets would have given the same result as 50 lbs. beets 
such as were used, and it would have been possible to push the 
daily consumption very much beyond the limit attempted. It 
is admitted that beets in Ohio would certainly average 11 tons 
per acre and as their cost of cultivation, including harvesting 
and siloing, is $44.00, the cost per ton is $4.00 or about 0.2 
cents per lb. 

If we admit that corn silage is worth $2,50 per ton, its cost 
per lb. is 1.2 cents, consequently 40 lbs. silage costs 5.2 cents 
per diem, while sugar beets cost 6.4 cents, or a difference of 1.2 
cents to produce 3.7 lbs. of milk. This, in itself, would be a 
most excellent investment. These contrasts would have been 
still greater had better beet seed been used. Not only would it 
have been shown from a milk-and-butter point of view, but also 
in actual gain in flesh. In Bulletin No. 2, 1892, the following 
statement is made: "It is possible to produce on an average as 
many pounds of sugar beets per acre as of mangels; and since 
the average analysis shows fifty per cent, more dry matter, the 
conclusion reached is, that one ton of average sugar beets is 
worth as much for feeding purposes as 1^ tons of average 
mangel-wurzel." 

The comparison between corn silage and sugar beets was 

further made by a new series of investigations during 1890. f 

Comparison be- Very important experiments have been made under the 

tween potatoes auspices of the Iowa experiment station X with a view to 

^" ^^ ^" determining the comparative value of sugar beets and potatoes in 

* Bulletin, No. 2, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892. 
t Bulletin, No. 5, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890. 
X Bulletin No. 17, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892. 



COMPARISON BETWEEN POTATOES AND BEETS. 



89 



the production of milk, cream and butter. To facilitate under- 
standing the Iowa data the results have been tabulated as 
follows : 



Results Obtained by Feeding a Shoet-hobn Cow and a Holstein 
Heifer on Beets. 







S 

0) 


'I 

pq 


a 
'S'g 

H 


3 

pq 




Market value 
of butter 
per lb. 


First churning 

(January 18th. ) 
Second churning . . 

( January 25th. ) 
Third churning 

(February 22d.) 


lbs. 
80.5 
84.0 

8.40 

82.8 


lbs. 
13.5 
10.75 
14.75 


lbs. 
9.0 
8.0 
9.25 


min. 
12 
11 

25 


lbs. 
3.75 
3.75 
4.50 

4.0 


lbs. 
50 
20 
20 


cents. 

20 
18-20 
21-22 


Average 




8.75 






20 



From these figures we conclude that from 20.7 lbs. milk there 
was made 1 lb. butter worth 20 cents per lb. 



Results Obtained by Feeding a Short-horn Gdw and a Jersey 
Heifer on Potatoes. 





1 


i 

o 


1 

3 

pq 


bio 
C 

« 2 


S 

3 

pq 




Market value 
of butter 
per lb. 


First churning 

Second churning 

Third churning 


lbs. 
54 
46 
34 


lbs. 
10.2 
5.25 
5.75 


lbs. 
6.5 
3.0 
2.75 


min. 
15 

22 
20 


lbs. 
3.0 
1.5 

2.2 


lbs. 
40 
20 
10 


cents. 

20 

16 to 17 

18 to 19 




45 




4.08 




2.3 




18 3 







90 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

We conclude that from 19.5 lbs. milk there was made 1 lb. 
butter worth 18.3c. per lb. 

From February 2nd to 22nd the cows fed on beets gave 1.056 
lbs. milk, those on potatoes during same period 581 lbs. milk. 
If we admit the foregoing averages, there would be extracted 
51 lbs. butter from beet milk worth $10.00, from the potato 
milk 30 lbs. butter worth $5.50, or $4.50 in favor of beets, dur- 
ing a period of 20 days. To these profits must be added the 
cream and buttermilk, which with beets is nearly double that 
obtained from potatoes. 

It would be interesting to determine the comparative fertiliz- 
ing value of the manure from cows fed upon potatoes and beets. 
One fact appears to us certain, that 50 lbs. beets at $4.00 per 
ton are always cheaper than 40 lbs. potatoes, even at the same 
market price, and admitting that the butter returns would be 
the same (?). Beet butter has its own characteristic color, and 
will keep for months, while potato butter has no keeping quali- 
ties and is colorless. 

It has been concluded that high-grade butter cannot be made 
when cows eat more than 10 lbs. potatoes per diem. When cows 
are eating 20 lbs. beets per diem no coloring matter need be used 
and the resulting butter is of a superior quality and has a most 
excellent flavor while potato butter lacks flavor. These feeding 
experiments were conducted with considerable care, the ration 
being gradually increased, and then decreased. An important 
fact noticed w'as, that cows will continue to eat 50 lbs. beets 
with relish, but after a time refuse the 40 lbs. potatoes. 

Other experiments have been made to determine the value of 
Other experi- potatoes and roots for fattening lambs.* The test was made 
with 36 lambs divided into 3 lots of 12 each. The three lots 
consumed about the same quantity of grain, hay and roots. 
The table herewith shows the result of these tests: 

* Bulletin No. 59, MinneBota Agri. Exp. Station, 1899. 



ments. 



COMPARISON BETWEEN POTATOES AND BEETS. 



91 



COMPAKATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED BY FEEDING LaMBS WITH POTATOES, 

Beets and Mangels. 



Lot t, potatoes ...... 

Lot 2, mangel-wurzel 
Lot 3, sugar-beets •• • 



verage weight 
at the begin- 
ning of test 
proper. 


verage gain 
per lamb. 


3od comsumed 
per lamb per 
day. 


< 


< 


P^ 


50.6 lbs. 


32.9 lbs. 


3.52 lbs. 


50.8 " 


30.6 " 


3.52 " 


50.6 " 


34.6 " 


3.57 " 



2 be 



O 3 



o 



4,94 cents. 
4.20 " 

3.78 " 



^ S 



§0.86 
1.07 
L24 



These figures speak for themselves — with beets the average 
gain, cost and profit were greater than with either mangel- 
wurzels or potatoes. 

In experiments made to determine the relative value of sugar 
beets for steers and sheep, it is interesting to note that ' ' the lot 
fed on alfalfa and sugar beets returned a net profit, above a fair 
price for feed given, of $3.45 apiece, and the lot fed on alfalfa 
and grain a loss of $2.38 apiece." The sugar beets were valued 
at $3.50 per ton. Like experiments were made with sheep. 
The conclusion was that the lot fed hay and sugar beets during 
the second period gave better returns than those fed on hay 
alone.* 

Experiments to determine the comparative feeding value of 
silage, sugar beets and mangels were made at the Pennsylvania 
experiment station, the result of which experiments is shown 
in the table herewith: 



* Bulletin No. 30, Wyoming Agri. Exp. Station, 1896. 



92 FEEDIISTG WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Comparative Feeding Value of Silage, Beets and Mangels for Cows. 



*» 


Milk. 


Butter. 


Solids. 
Not fat. 




lbs. 
141.3 
152.4 
116.0 


lbs. 
9.0 

7.7 
6.4 


lbs. 
12 1 


Lot 2, sugar-beets (2d period) 

Lot 3, mangel -wurzels (2d period). 


13.3 

10.4 



These figures show that the milk production is in favor of beets. 
Considered as a whole, these figures appear to be slightly in 
favor of silage, the difference, however, being so slight that it 
need not be considered. * 

In New York, Cornell University has made some interesting 
experiments to determine the effect of different rations in fat- 
tening lambs. In these, instead of sugar beets, mangolds were 
used. The lambs selected were thin in flesh and considered 
well adapted to the experiment. We notice in these results 
several important facts apparently overlooked. 

The sheep were divided into four lots of three each. One lot 
did not have a ration suitable to its requirements, so the results 
obtained in that special case need not be considered. The 
fourth lot received no roots during the entire period of feeding, 
and the total protein was nearly the same as in the third lot. 
The increase of weight was 80.5 per cent, for second, 73 per 
cent, for third, and only 52.7 per cent, in fourth lot (without 
roots). 

It is maintained that the nitrogenous food in the second case 
was the cause of the excessive gain; this may be true, but it cer- 
tainly was not so in the third. The animal before fattening 
weighed 51.5 lbs,, and five months afterward weighed 89 lbs., 
with a ration of mangolds, hay, corn, wheat, beans, etc., while 
with wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, corn and timothy hay (no 

* Eeport Pennsylvania Agri. Exp. Station, 1896. 



SUGAR BEET LEAVES AND TOPS. 93 

roots), lambs weighing 54.7 lbs. in November weighed 83.59 
lbs. in April. 

Another interesting fact is, that the cost of grain per 100 lbs. 
with roots was $6.03 to $6.36, while without roots it was $7.82. 
In the former cases the digestible nutrients were 363.9 lbs. and 
383.2 lbs., while without roots only 351.4 lbs. were digested; 
the object was to feed all that would be readily eaten. A fact ■ 
that we wish to emphasize especially is, that roots assist the 
digestion of other fodders, and force consumption, which is of 
considerable moment. The two lots fed with mangolds in their 
ration gave an increase of wool of 72 and 56 lbs. respectively, 
while without roots the wool weighed 46 lbs. As the protein 
in the last two cases was nearly the same, this result shows an 
increase of 10 lbs. wool in favor of mangolds. 

Another experiment station of the country, with a view to 
determining within what limits siloed cossettes compare with for- 
age beets when fed to milk cows, conducted a series of experi- 
ments, the result of which was that cows fed on forage beets 
gave 1137 quarts of milk containing 79 lbs. fat, while the re- 
siduum fed cows resulted in 1105 quarts of milk containing 75 
lbs. fat. The difference is so slight that the results may be con- 
sidered identical. The forage beet ration consisted of 72 lbs. beets, 
8 lbs. clover hay, 6 lbs. chopped straw and 5 lbs. oil cake for 
1000 lbs. live weight. The other ration consisted of 80 lbs. re- 
siduum cossettes, to which were added 9 lbs. chopped straw, 
8 lbs. clover hay and 4 lbs. oil cake per 1000 lbs. live weight. 
Later experiments upon a very extended scale have demon- 
strated that the cossette feeding is more economical. 

Feeding Sugar Beet Leaves and Tops. 

The cultivation of sugar beets to be furnished to the factory for Preliminary 
the extraction of sugar is not the only question to be considered remarlcs. 
by the farmer, for the simple reason that the resulting pulp or 
residue has an enormous value to the agricultural community. 
Besides the roots proper, one may harvest a large quantity of 
leaves and tops which without being of any commercial value 
are of great importance to the tiller. However, there are many 
farmers sufficiently blind to overlook the precious qualities of 



94 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

.hese portions of the plant, and allow them to remain and rot 
)n the field without rendering other service than that of supply- 
ng a portion of certain mineral elements — representing plant 
ood — which have been absorbed by the root during its develop- 
ment. The money value of these leaves when used as a fertil- 
izer is certainly less than that which would be derived from 
feeding to cattle. Beet leaves and tops contain, it is true, a 
certain amount of salts which are useful to the soil, but on the 
other hand many of these mineral substances can be more ad- 
vantageously utilized by feeding the leaves to cattle and col- 
lecting the manure; their fertilizing properties are not subse- 
quently lost by the passage through the animal's body and 
during the interval the stock has been benefited by receiving a 
good wholesome green fodder at the very period of the year 
when it is most relished and is eaten with avidity. A difficulty as 
regards this question arises here: Experience shows that the best 
results are obtained by feeding siloed beet leaves during early 
spring. Experience also shows that barn-yard manure must 
not be applied to lands during the season of planting. 

If the tiller is anxious to return to the soil the salts the 
manure contains, he must cultivate that year some other crop 
than beets upon it; otherwise the resulting roots would very 
probably be refused at the factory owing to their low coeflScient 
of purity. When beet-sugar factories are located near populous 
centers, beet leaves may render excellent service for dairy cows. 
Under such circumstances farmers should depend upon their 
own fertihzers rather than on those from cities, which are 
mainly made up of organic matter. 
Composition of Chemical analysis of this residuum demonstrates that the use 
leaves and tops. Qf ^get leaves, etc., may become a vital question during those 
years when the beet harvest has been unsatisfactory. 

While such analyses vary under different conditions, it is very 
important to give what may be considered an average. Their 
composition, according to Dr. Herzfeld, is as follows: 



BEET LEAF STRIPPING. 95 

Average Composition of Beet Leaves and Tops. 



Leaves. 



Tops. 



Entire beet. 



"^Vater 

Ash ....._ 

Raw protein 

Fatty substances • • • 
Fibre 

Nitrogen free extract 



89.05 
2.20* 
2.80 
0.45 

5.50 



80.10 
5.65 
1.99 
0.24 
1.83 

10.00 



81.5 
0.7 
1.0 
0.1 
1.3 

15.4 



From this one concludes that between the tops and the entire 
beet there is a very great difference. The necks have double 
the nutritive value of the leaves. However, when fed to ani- 
mals, it is the custom to combine the leaves and tops. 

A glance at these figures shows that the tops contain more 
salts than the leaves; in raw protein the leaves have a slight 
advantage; in pure protein the tops contain 1.25 per cent, 
while the leaves contain only 0. 75 per cent. The tops, weight 
for weight, contain nearly twice as much of nitrogenous consti- 
tuents as are possessed by the leaves. 

As soon as farmers of certain sections commence to realize 
the value of beet leaves for cattle-feeding they do not appear to 
be able to resist the temptation of stripping the beets of their 
foliage before the harvesting period commences, and this prac- 
tice means a considerable reduction in the ultimate sugar per- 
centage of the roots, with an increase of the saline percentage. 
The necks of the beet become more and more elongated. 
Nature in her effort to restore the mutilation sends out new 
leaves, which means a temporary reduction in the sugar per- 
centage of the beet, and this is never replaced, notwithstanding 
the fact that the young foliage performs a certain amount of sugar 
elaboration. When the harvesting period arrives the tops must 
be removed from the beets, and the larger they are the smaller 
will become the ultimate yield of sugar beets per acre; further- 
more, the farmer receives a decreased price for his beets, for 

* According to Wolf's analysis, the ash percentage is 1.5, of which 0.4 is 
potassa, 0.2 soda, 0.3 lime, 0.17 magnesia, 0.07 phosphoric acid, 0.08 sulphuric 
acid, 0.16 silicic acid, and 0.13 chlorin. 



Beet leaf 
stripping. 



96 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

they not only contain less sugar, but the juices are less pure 
than they would have been had the leaf stripping been prohib- 
ited. When farmers grow beets for cattle-feeding there can be 
no objection to stripping. 
Early feeding and Small farmers are necessarily obliged to feed the leaves im- 

niistfikp^ niftdp 

mediately, and under such circumstances there is a great waste 
of material. They are pulled from the cribs as eaten by the 
live stock and certain portions fall on the ground, are trod upon 
and are thus lost. This is why it is more economical to chop 
up the leaves before the early feeding. 

Many farmers allow sheep to run over their fields and eat the 
leaves during their passage. Under all circumstances such 
customs should be prohibited, as large quantities of leaves are 
necessarily trod under and are thus destroyed, which in reality 
means a waste as far as their nutrient value is concerned. 
Furthermore, it is simply folly to allow freedom to sheep, etc., 
at that period of the year when there is always danger of rain. 
Another fact not to be forgotten is that sheep manure is not 
considered a desirable fertilizer for sugar beets; but this would 
evidently be of no consequence if a suitable rotation of crops 
was maintained. 

As a general thing as soon as the beet harvest commences 
residuum feeding is resorted to, but for a farmer who has a 
considerable area devoted to beets it is necessary to adopt some 
system of feeding which will ultimately become quite an econ- 
omy when green forages are scarce. 
Harvesting the It is urgent in most cases in harvesting the beets either to 
crop of beet form piles of the roots on one hand and the leaves on the other, 
leaves and tops, q^ ^q alternate rows of leaves and roots, or again to form piles of 
the beets and use the leaves as a cover. When the piles are 
small the practical results obtained are more satisfactory, as the 
leaves then are left on the ground and are subsequently 
collected. 

An average crop is about 12,000 kilograms of leaves and 
tops to the hectare (4.8 tons to the acre), which may be com- 
posed as follows: 25 per cent, for the tops and 75 per cent, for 
the leaves. If one makes allowance for the cost of conveyance 
of the leaves and tops to the center of utilization, it will be 



BEET LEAP KEEPING. 97 

seen that the losses are considerable when not promptly utilized, 
especially in cases where they are considered as having fertiliz- 
ing value. Their nourishing value means 1,600 (1,408 lbs. to the 
acre) kilograms of dry substance to the hectare, of which 260 
kilograms (228 lbs. to the acre) are albuminoids. Their value, 
which is frequently only moderately appreciated, is in reality 
such that it should not be neglected, and if added to the price 
paid for the beet at the factory one will be surprised to see at 
what cost these roots could be furnished to the manufacturer by 
the farmer; notwithstanding this fact, many tillers will not take 
the matter into consideration. 

In 1873 in estimates of the possible money cost of working a 
beet-sugar factory the beet leaves to be harvested were frequently 
taken into consideration. The idea then was to utilize them in 
a manner that has never since been realized — they were to form 
a substitute for tobacco. 

The only rational utilization of beet leaves which is generally Beet leaf 
applied at the present day, consists in keeping them as a sort of •^^fP'"?- 
sour fodder. The first experiments at beet leaf keeping that we 
know of were made in 1852 at Thiede, but these were not suc- 
cessful, for the simple reason that air was allowed to enter the 
silos, which is very objectionable, as we shall see later on. 
Since then many modes have been proposed which were intended 
to obviate existing faults, but none of these systems proved 
successful. The method which is now generally adopted con- 
sists in allowing the leaves to remain on the field for three or 
four days, after which period they are soft and no longer possess 
the rigidity which would otherwise have prevented their satis- 
factory settling in the silos. Comparative experiments made 
by Muller show just to what extent the method of placing in 
silos exerts an influence. In the one case the leaves in a more 
or less wilted condition were placed in a silo in layers and well 
pressed and subsequently covered with three feet of earth; in 
the other the ordinary mode of siloing was adopted. 
7 



98 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Composition of Beet Leaves Siloed in Two Ways. 



Water 

Protein substanees • • . • 
Raw fatty substances • . 
Extractable substances 

Eaw fibre 

Mineral substances • . . 
Lactic acid 



Layers of Leaves. 


Regular Siloing. 


74.95 


79.67 


2.90 


2.65 


0.65 


0.54 


8.69 


7.59 


2.79 


3.11 


9.66 


0.14 


0.33 


6.31 



Furthermore, these leaves during the wilting lose part of the 
water, which may be considered an advantage. They should 
be well shaken as a preliminary operation, with a view to 
getting rid of any adhering earth, and then compressed into 
silos dug out of the ground, cemented or not, as the case may 
be. The silos are usually about six feet in depth; their length is 
variable and may suit the ideas of each farmer. The width of 
four or five feet appears satisfactory; the bottom should have a 
slight slant, say J inch per yard and suitable means for drain- 
age. The method of filling, and also the most desirable con- 
dition of the leaves before being siloed, remain open questions. 

There are various modes of compressing the leaves in the 
silos, one of which consists of alloAving a cart with wide tires to 
pass over each successive layer. This operation is repeated 
several times. However, precaution should be taken that the 
wheels of the wagon do not pass over in the same rut each time. 
In such cases the silos have a width equal to twice the spacing 
between the wheels of the cart. Excessive pressure is not de- 
sirable in beet-leaf preservation. Experiments show that leaves 
partially lose their nourishing value when submitted to great 
pressure. The custom of treading down the upper surface 
should be abandoned. The leaves are piled up several feet 
above upper border of the silo. These soon settle and more 
leaves are thrown on top; when the surface remains constant a 
conical pile of leaves forms the top; this is covered with a layer 
of earth, the thickness of which depends upon the ambient 
temperature. Care must be taken that cracks be Avell filled, so 
as to keep out air. 



TRANSFORMATION IN SILOS AND LOSSES. 99 

After a few days the mass becomes heated, and there follows Transformation 
a lactic fermentation which when completed leaves the mass in '" ^''"^ ^""^ 
a brown colored condition. It may remain in a perfect state of *'^^^'* 
preservation during a very long period, lasting for several 
years — three or more. The fermentation in question means 
a considerable softening of the leaves and a reduction in the vol- 
ume of the exterior portion. The mass settles, and the volume 
is reduced by one-third and frequently 50 per cent., the loss of 
nitrogen being 30 per cent. , and it is at this time that open cre- 
vices are noticeable in the earth covering, through which there is 
danger of air penetrating. Under these circumstances there 
would follow all sorts of secondary reactions very favorable to 
the existence of micro-organisms, the combined action of which 
would cause putrefaction. Under all circumstances, it is advis- 
able to carefully close these openings as soon as they are visible. 
The upper stratum always comes more or less in contact with 
the air, and is consequently the first to show signs of decay or 
organic changes of the residuum being kept. It necessarily fol- 
lows that these transformations mean a money loss to all inter- 
ested. 

A German analysis * of leaves siloed for six months showed 
that they contained 0.136 per cent, oxalic acid soluble in water 
and 0.46 per cent, insoluble in water — possibly in the form of a 
calcic oxalate. 

Stutzer gives the following analysis of siloed beet leaves: 



Per cent. 

Water 69.8 ] 

Mineral substances- • 15.9 
Raw protein 2. 2 



Per cent. 

The raw protein con- [ ^'^"^^^^^ • • • ^-^ 

Cellulose 4. 3 f tained Non-digestible nitric 

Non-nitrogenous.... 6.4 | L ^"bstances 1.7 

Fatty substances • .. 1.4 J 

The excessive mineral percentage was explained by the im- 
purities possibly introduced by the leaves from having been in 
contact with earth. 

*No analysis should be made of siloed leaves until cleaned and free from the 
earth collected from the side of silos. 



L.q'C. 



100 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

It has been proposed, in order to obviate the losses of these 
protein substances, to have a cemented bottom in the silos so as 
to retain the liquid in question; but experience has shown that 
there follows no increase in the total nutritive value of the final 
product; and furthermore its palatability is very much lessened. 
In order to increase the conservation of siloed leaves it is desir- 
able to add one per cent, of ordinary salt. 

It may happen that the mass becomes excessively heated, and 
instead of lactic acid there will be formed acetic acid, resulting 
in an acetic fermentation. This very materially diminishes the 
nutritious value of the leaves that are to be kept. Efforts have 
been made to hasten the lactic fermentation with the view of 
obviating this difficulty. To produce lactic acid the leaves are 
moistened during siloing with sour milk, but this has not given 
the results hoped for. 
Faulty siloing. Under certain circumstances, which we regret to say are of 
very frequent occurrence, the siloing has been very badly done, 
and the exterior leaves are rotten. These may be removed by 
a spade or any other implement. Regarding this question it is 
well to note that under all circumstances there is necessarily a 
certain decomposition of the upper surface of the product being 
siloed, and it does not necessarily follow that the person in 
charge is responsible for the surface alterations which alwaj's 
occur, do what one may; but what we have reference to is an 
excessive putrefaction, such as is frequently seen in some of our 
western farms where efforts have been made at siloing either 
leaves or cossettes. Any putrefaction of more than one foot be- 
low the surface is extremely faulty. Two or three inches from 
the surface may be said to be the limit, 
leaves and other It seldom occurs that beet leaves are siloed without the addi- 
substances in tion of some foreign material, the object of which is extremely 
silo. variable. Upon general principles these leaves are kept in con- 
junction with other forages in order to obtain a compact mass 
into which air penetrates with difficulty. Under these circum- 
stances there is very much less danger of putrefaction, and this 
siloed material, which is of great value to the farmer, lasts with- 
out undergoing the slightest change during a period of years. 

It is considered desirable, according to Herzfeld, to carry out 



LEAVES AND OTHER SUBSTANCES IN SILOS. 101 

the siloing with alternate layers of tops, leaves and residuum 
cossettes. 

Under all circumstances the tops should never be separately 
siloed, otherwise they would lose too much of their nutritive 
value and would rot. Upon general principles it is well to 
alternate with the leaves a certain number of layers of straw 
with a view to absorbing the excess of moisture thrown off by 
the leaves and in this manner the soil is prevented from absorb- 
ing it. This is the usual practice. 

If during the siloing a certain amount of salt is added, an 
allowance must be made for this fact during feeding so that an 
excess of this condiment will not be administered. 

In certain parts of Germany visited by the writer the beet 
leaf siloing is done in silos about 6 feet deep with rounded 
corners, the bottom slanting slightly. Upon it there is placed 
a certain layer of straw, after which the leaves are placed to a 
depth of about 5 inches, and the mass is compressed by sim- 
ply stamping upon it. Then there are added about 7 lbs. of 
salt per ton of leaves, over which is placed a 4-inch layer of 
straw, followed by another o-inch layer of leaves, etc. , until the 
mass is 3 to 4 feet above the level of the ground. 

Many years since Grouven made a series of experiments in 
siloing leaves, and the combination giving the best results con- 
sisted of 2,000 lbs. of leaves, to which were added 150 lbs. straw 
and 500 lbs. beet tops. After 6 months' keeping of the product, 
the analysis showed that the addition of straw had a tendency 
to retain the juice of the leaves, regulating at the same time the 
fermentation. 

First of all the sugar contained in the tops disappears. It is 
found from experiments that when the tops are siloed with their 
leaves they had better be well chopped up. The extractive sub- 
stances of the tops and a portion of the cellulose of the leaves 
undergo an acid fermentation and are thus transformed into 
many complicated constituents, the nutritious value of which is 
very questionable. Finally, the proteid substances are trans- 
formed into amides, the nutritive power of which is very much 
less than albumin proper. A large portion of the disappearing 
nutritive substances is changed into certain compounds that are 
found in the liquid which separates or runs off from the leaves. 



102 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Solt leaf fodder. Postelt works in the following way in order to obtain a soft 
fodder, as he calls it. Upon general principles the idea is to 
bring about as rapidly as possible a temperature of at least 25 
degrees C. [77° F.] in the midst of the leaves, and furthermore 
to maintain this temperature. The wilted leaves heat more 
rapidly, due to the fact that they contain less water. They are 
thrown into the vat in which a proportionate amount of chopped 
straw is combined. Furthermore a certain quantity of this sub- 
stance is added without attempting to compress the same. 
After intervals of two or three days the temperature rises to 50 
degrees C. [122° F.]. Then there follows a daily addition of 
beet leaves so that the thermometer introduced into the mass of 
the leaves will always indicate the same temperature. This 
heating may be explained by an oxidation through the influence 
of the oxygen of the air which is retarded by a new pressure of 
the leaves forced layer by layer one over the other. Under 
these circumstances naturally considerable air is imprisoned 
therein. It has been suggested that a certain amount of lattice 
work be arranged around the silos so that the mass of leaves 
can be raised, say nine feet, above the level of the ground, and 
covered with moist earth. Precautions should be taken to sepa- 
rate the leaves from the earth at the bottom of silos with a layer 
of chopped straw. It is further recommended under no circum- 
stance to add leaves to the silos when the temperature is too 
high. 
Beet leaf The Lehmann & Maercker method for soured leaves has many 

washing, advantages. These well known agronomists find that the wash- 
ing of leaves, when they have been properly siloed, effects the 
elimination of dirt-like substances, which when allowed to re- 
main will, under all circumstances, give to animals a distaste 
for what they are given to eat, as the sandy particles get be- 
tween their teeth and they become discouraged and reject this 
food later on. 

Lehmann washes the leaves in a wired basket in a suitable 
tank filled with water. From his personal observation he has 
concluded that under these circumstances leaves lose 1.3 per 
cent, of their organic substances, 0.5 of protein, 0.12 fatty sub- 
stances, 4.53 of mineral substances, 0.09 of celluose, and 0.68 



ACIDULATED BEET LEAVES. 103 

of non-nitrogenous extractive substances, all of which are calcu- 
lated upon the basis of soured leaves. Observations show that 
upon an average the loss is 8.03 per cent, of the absolute quan- 
tity of organic substances. 

Maercker declares that the losses, owing to washing, are very- 
much greater and are nearly 25.05 per cent, of the total organic 
substance. There is lost, according to this authority, 75 per 
cent, of ether-extractable substances, and he declares that under 
these circumstances it is very advantageous, as these constitu- 
ents are worthless. It is now generally admitted that washed 
leaves have the same nutritive value as forage beets. 

The Mehay mode that gained considerable favor over thirty Acidulated beet 
years ago, had for a general starting-point a cooking of the '^^^^^' 
leaves in water containing a small percentage of hydrochloric 
acid. The operation was conducted in the following manner: 
' ' A special receptacle of about 530 gallons capacity, in which 
the boiling was done, was half filled with water, to which were 
added about 3 quarts of hydrochloric acid at 22° Be. This was 
well stirred so as to assure a perfect combination of the water 
and acid, and after the boiling had lasted for a few minutes 
1000 lbs. of beet leaves with their tops were added just as they 
were collected from the field subsequent to the sugar-beet 
harvesting. The receptacle at first is too small to contain the 
leaves in question, but as the boiling continues they settle and 
may be readily kept beneath the surface of the acidulated 
water. The boiling ceases after 15 minutes, when the leaves 
are removed with wooden pitchforks and allowed to drain for a 
short period, the liquor running off being returned to the boiler. 
Special stress was placed upon the importance of collecting 
the leaves upon the field as soon as possible, thus preventing 
any possible alteration they might undergo, as during such or- 
ganic changes they become possessed of a characteristic odor 
which even the boiling and acid treatment do not overcome. 

After a certain number of repeated boilings there is deposited 
at the bottom of the receptacle a certain quantity of dirt, etc. ; 
hence it was customary to allow it to settle entirely and then 
decant. It was noticed that the earth alwaj^s neutralized a 
certain percentage of the acid used, and hence it was import- 



104 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ant to make allowance for this loss. It was argued that during 
this acid treatment the alkalies, such as potassa and soda, be- 
came potassic and sodic chlorids, and took the place of the or- 
ganic acids. Far from reducing the nutritive value of the pro- 
duct, they on the contrary rather increased the nourishing 
properties of the leaves treated. The leaves thus prepared were 
placed in special silos with false bottoms, from which the water 
draining from the mass could be drawn off. It was proposed 
to subsequently distil the liquor with the view to alcohol pro- 
duction. The heating of the receptacle could be done upon an 
open fire with steam coils, etc., but under all circumstances the 
coils used should be copper so as to diminish the chances of 
their being attacked by the acid. Later modifications of this 
mode resulted in using wooden vats with steam coils. The 
cooking of beet leaves became very popular in certain parts of 
the North of France and Belgium; but at first no acid was used 
nor were such leaves siloed. It was found later on, Avhen intro- 
ducing the Mehay mode upon an extended scale, that great ad- 
vantages were derived from chopping the leaves up into small 
pieces, which greatly facilitated the action of the acids used, 
especially in cases where boiling was done away with. It was 
noticed that a certain interval was always needed by the cold 
water mode before the acid had completely penetrated the entire 
texture of the leaves treated, and under no circumstances should 
they be fed to cattle before assuming the same appearance as to 
texture as leaves that had been boiled. However, by the cook- 
ing mode two men can handle 3 tons of leaves per diem, which 
after the treatment are reduced to 2.0 tons. At that time this 
preparation cost, including fuel, interest on investment, etc., 
about $1.20 per ton of leaves, and was worth, it was then de- 
clared, at least $4 per ton. 
Beef [eaf drying. Miiller has published a calculation showing that, practically 
and theoretically, there is a special advantage in drying beet 
leaves with a view to their transformation into dry fodder. 
Under these circumstances it is possible to obtain a combination 
of superior money value when considered on a basis of 100 lbs. 
of material fed. It is not found desirable to dry the leaves in 
any special appliance. It is far better from an economical 



BUTTNER AND MEYER DRYER. 105 

standpoint to avail one's self of the fine weather and sunshine 
that frequently occurs in the autumn. Under these conditions 
the leaves will be semi-dried. An example may be cited in 
which the tops lost 80 per cent, of their weight in eight days; 
the leaves, strictly speaking, lose 33 per cent. Rain has 
not as unfavorable an effect upon the desiccation as one might 
suppose, as the water that is deposited upon the leaves in the 
form of dew readily runs off and is rapidly evaporated when 
brought into contact with the wind or any mechanical influence. 
During ordinary weather the leaves lose in five or six days 50 
per cent, of their moisture, and if 25 per cent, more is evapo- 
rated a commodity is obtained that will be possessed of all the 
requisites for easy keeping. 

Air desiccation is apparently not feasible at the time of year 
when the sun has very little evaporating force; but it is import- 
ant not to overlook the fact that there are many other industries 
that have the same difficulties to contend with, and overcome 
them successfully. 

Authorities in some cases have suggested that the " Crummer Crummer dryer, 
dryer" may possess all the essential qualifications. The leaves 
and tops undergo a sort of preliminary chopping and pressing in 
the air, so as to withdraw or extract an additional amount of 
moisture; and this operation is then followed by the action of a 
series of compressing drums in which circulates steam at various 
pressures. A point that is essential to bear in mind is that 
under no circumstance should the pressure of steam be the same 
in each drum, but on the contrary it is desirable to gradually 
increase it until reaching the limit of the desiccation in view. 
The dry leaves thus obtained have excellent keeping qualities, 
will not mildew, and have a good healthy appearance. 

Buttner and Meyer by their method of drying resort to a pre- Buttner and 
liminary desiccation by the elimination of a large proportion of Meyer dryer, 
the water contained in the cells of the leaves. They cut the 
leaves into strips in special machines, which are in reality not 
special, as they are simply those which are used to chop beets. 
The leaves are then forced through a spiral where they are sub- 
mitted to the action of steam. Under the influence of this in- 
creased temperature the cells of the greater portion of the leaves 



106 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

burst open and the liquid they contain is liberated. After their 
passage through suitable presses the water percentage has been 
considerably reduced, and some authorities maintain that this 
reduction reaches 40 per cent. 

The leaves, having thus undergone this preliminary water- 
elimination, are dried in special furnaces of the Buttner and 
Meyer type, which will be described later on. The leaves are 
then perfectly dry, with the exception, however, of a few small 
particles that are rather too large to have undergone a perfect 
desiccation during such a limited period. 

In order to prevent these slices or pieces from being the 
source of a future infection and possible complications when 
considered from a fermenting standpoint (we refer to micro- 
organisms that may possibly be generated and which would 
necessarily result in the putrefaction of the material under con- 
sideration), the particles being treated pass through a metallic 
gauze acting as a filtering medium, and are subsequently run 
through a special dryer. 

On a particular farm visited by the writer, where the Buttner 
and Meyer method has been practically introduced, it has been 
possible to gather per hectare 3,500 kilograms of dried leaves 
[about 3,000 lbs. per acre], which, according to Maercker, have 
a commercial value of 9 marks per 100 kilogs. [say $1 per 100 
lbs. or $22 a ton] , which means 315 marks to the hectare [$31.50 
per acre]. The same leaves when green are worth only 60 
marks [$6 per acre] . The desiccation costs 2 marks per 100 
kilogs. [24 cents per 100 lbs.], which in other words means 70 
marks for the total dried leaves obtained from a hectare [$7 per 
acre] . The carting may be put down at 40 to 50 marks per 
hectare [S4 to $5 per acre] . There remains consequently a net 
profit of 315-180, or 135 marks per hectare [or about $13.50 per 
acre] . The installation of a plant for this special drying, etc. , 
is not to be altogether recommended, owing to the cost of the 
transportation from the beet fields. According to Runkhe, the 
installation necessary for 125 hectares [300 acres] may be esti- 
mated at 20,000 marks [$5,000]. 

Vibrans declares that there is a decided objection to this 
method, owing to the fact that the preliminary pressing of the 



WUSTERHAGEN DRYER. 107 

leaves in the Klusemann apparatus increases the dry matter 
from 7 to 30 or 40 per cent., which means that there has been 
pressed out 75 to 80 per cent, of the total liquid. 

Unfortunately the water thus separated is not only water, but 
contains also a considerable percentage of dry substances. 
Happily these losses are not so heavy as might be supposed, as 
the original percentage of dry matter is higher than 7 per cent. ; 
it is at least 10 per cent. , and if the leaves during the period 
they remain in the field lose a certain percentage of this moist- 
ure, the dry substance they may contain is not less than 15 per 
cent., which leaves only 50 to 60 per cent, of the final liquid to 
be eliminated. 

Wusterhagen has given the question of beet-leaf keeping and Wusterhagen 
drying considerable attention, and his records upon the subject dfyer- 
are worth noting. He declares that when leaves are to be 
fed to cattle they should always undergo certain preliminary 
preparations with a view to diminishing the percentage of oxalic 
acid. 

Many modes for beet-leaf keeping have been suggested and 
experimented with. One of the recent German patents declares 
that in the question of beet-leaf keeping there are five facts that 
must be taken into consideration: 1st. Cleaning, with the ob- 
ject of getting rid of the sand, dirt, small stones, etc. 2d. Re- 
duction of the toxic percentage of oxalic acid of the leaves. 3d. 
Retaining the saccharine substance of the tops and leaves. 4th. 
Decrease of the total volume of the mass. 5th. Complete and 
thorough drying with a view to perfect keeping. The efforts 
of M. Wusterhagen were to carry out these essentials to the 
letter. Upon general principles we may admit that the green 
leaves retain 10 to 20 per cent, sand, which offers some difiiculty 
in complete laboratory analysis. While it has been recom- 
mended to wash the beet leaves, the idea does not appear to 
have much practical value. The sand collects in the tops dur- 
ing the washing and must be subsequently removed, which 
means, in practice, an additional expense. M. Wusterhagen 
says he allows the leaves to undergo a preliminary wilting upon 
the ground after the beets have been harvested, and this drying 
is continued in a current of hot air. The leaves thus dried are 



108 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

placed in a revolving drum in which the sand, etc., is separated 
through a well-arranged sieve, and this work may be very thor- 
.oughly done even during drying. Attention is called to the fact 
that in soil or sun-drying, the dew and rain bring about a slow 
decomposition of the oxalic acid. This fact is new and was 
unknown several years since; if true, it has a more than second- 
ary importance. At first sight, it would seem impossible to 
decrease the oxalic acid and at the same time retain the total 
sugar in the tops and leaves, as oxalic acid needs for its entire 
decomposition a high temperature, which would destroy the 
sugar. Just why during sun-drying the oxalic acid should 
decrease has never been satisfactorily explained. Is the reduc- 
tion due to an oxidation or the. action of some micro-organism? 
The drying means a considerable loss of oxalic acid. Before 
desiccation the leaves contained 2.39 per cent, of this acid and 
after the hot-air treatment it fell to 0.60 per cent. The average 
for all the samples examined during one week was 0.45 per 
cent., while the analysis of a sample of the previous year showed 
only 0.35 per cent, of oxalic acid. Under these circumstances 
there can be no possible objection to feeding these dried leaves 
to cattle in their regular daily ration. On the other hand, when 
the green leaves are fed there are great risks, for the simple 
reason that the acid percentage of the dry matter frequently 
reaches 5.9. 

When leaves are submitted to a very high temperature, as is 
suggested by Maercker, there is always some danger of bring- 
ing about an alteration in the sugar w^hich is not desirable; 
hence the advisability of never exceeding a certain limit, and 
this is controlled by a current of cool air and the addition of 
some fresh substance to the mass. Both Drs. Zelber and 
Maercker declared that by the Wusterhagen mode there is no 
decomposition of the sugar. The operation of drying offers 
certain difficulties in view of the fact that one has varying 
elements to contend with, and these are all of very different 
natures. For example, the tops have an entirely different 
structure from the leaves, and in the latter the special delicate 
botanical formation must be taken into consideration. If there 
existed simply a regular, uniform heating, one portion would 



WUSTEEHAGEN DRYER. 109 

be entirely burned while the other Avould be only semi-dried. 
Long observations had demonstrated that the best mode is to 
begin with a systematic cleaning, then an air reduction in weight 
followed by drying. The tops remain upon the ground for 
several weeks; then they are put into small piles where the 
wilting continues, after which they are taken to the hot air 
dryer. By this treatment the oxalic acid is almost entirely de- 
stroyed, while the sugar contained in the tops has undergone 
very little transformation. The drying of the leaves and tops 
is then continued at a lower temperature, so that there can be 
no possible danger of caramelization, a special system for regu- 
lating the temperature of the dryer being used. The reduction 
in weight of the tops and leaves always means a considerable 
loss during sifting of the dust, impurities, etc. At the start 88 
per cent, of substance to be dried diminishes at least 20 to 30 
per cent, in weight during the air-drying or wilting. The arti- 
ficial drying means 80 to 48 additional percentage. The leaves 
finally retain about 15 per cent, moisture. Beet leaf drying 
has already obtained considerable proportions. 

According to Petry & Hecking, who have introduced the 
Wusterhagen mode upon several farms, these dried leaves will 
keep for at least two years under ordinary conditions, notwith- 
standing the fact that they show certain hygrometric powers. 
A sample containing 20 per cent, of water did not mildew even 
after a long period of keeping. They declare that this keeping 
power is due to their sugar percentage, 

Proebent's experiments in beet leaf drying have shown that 
the operation costs about 50 cents for 220 lbs, dry matter. In 
Belgium the profits are about one cent a pound. From a 
hectare (2.5 acres) there is collected about 3 tons of dry sub- 
stance, which is worth at least $30 in its dried state. 

Vibrans cannot understand how the technical authorities can 
possibly attempt to extract the water from a substance which 
contains already less moisture than do pressed diffusion cos- 
settes, and if these can be dried under remunerative conditions 
certainly beet leaves could be desiccated under very much better 
circumstances, if, instead of pressing the product, some practical 
method was devised for bringing the dryers to the leaves as 
found upon the field. 



110 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Advantages and The idea does not seem in many respects to be practicable; 
disadvantages ^^ jg^ however, very advantageous when sugar factories cultivate 
ee sugar. ^^^ beets themselves. Under these conditions the roots are 
farmed in the vicinity of the factory; but when it comes to the 
transportation of leaves for a distance of 2^ miles at a period 
when all means of traction are more expensive, such a system 
would be excessively costly. It would be necessary that the 
plant should consist of an apparatus for cutting the leaves, for 
the drying in a special furnace, and a movable engine that would 
carry the appliance where it was required. The combined 
machinery should be placed under a light movable roof. 

The desiccation of leaves has the great advantage of doing 
away with the moisture that may have been produced during 
siloing, under which circumstances they would more surely ap- 
proach the feeding value of hay. Furthermore the product 
would be vastly more healthy and would not be possessed of 
any of the laxative properties of fresh leaves. Moreover the 
amount of oxalic acid they contain is considerably reduced. 
Already the beet leaves that have remained on the field during 
an interval of a week or ten days after the harvesting of the 
beets, lose a considerable proportion of their oxalic acid. This 
statement, previously mentioned, is absolutely true. Apparently 
there has been produced a sort of fermentation which reduces 
the oxalic acid. However, this decrease may be the outcome 
of a continuation of some physiological action of a substance 
contained in the leaves after they are separated from the main 
body of the root, and this reduction increases during desicca- 
tion. There seems to be every reason to believe that there is 
great truth in this assertion, for the analysis, as given by 
Vibrans a well-known chemist, substantiates his views. The 
dry leaves contain 0.03 to 0.05 per cent, of oxalic acid, and 15 
to 20 per cent, of water, 5 per cent, albumen and 12 per cent, 
sugar. Buttner and Meyer allow only 0.23 per cent, of oxalic 
acid. On the other hand it is true that in their method there 
is no explanation of the loss of oxalic acid during the pressing 
of leaves in the Klusemann press. 
Beet leaf There is no example to be given of any serious complica- 

feeding. tion arising from the special beet leaf feeding. It is well to 



OBJECTIONS TO BEET-LEAF FEEDING. Ill 

remember that in these scientific experiments the results ob- 
tained show data that can be absolutely relied upon, and those 
interested in cattle feeding can adopt the given principles with- 
out the slightest hesitation. 

However, in the early experiments that were made in these 
new efforts at the utilization of products either from the beet 
sugar factory direct, or from the residuum of factories, there 
have always been certain unknown factors to contend with, but 
as matters now stand and as investigations have been made by 
the leading experimental stations of continental Europe, it is 
not to be presumed that any practical error has been committed. 

Attention has been called to the experiments of Priester in 
the " Milchzeitung," the well-known organ of Germany de- 
voted to this specialty. In this publication it is declared that 
when cows have been exclusively fed with leaves and without the 
intensive additional use of another forage, no results other than 
those which have been extremely satisfactory have ever been re- 
corded. The quantity of milk has increased, and furthermore 
in cases of working oxen the amount of traction obtained after 
a given interval has been quite equal to that which has hitherto 
been realized by many of the complicated formulae advanced by 
well-known specialists. 

The introduction of beet leaves as a forage, and especially Objections to 
siloed leaves, has met with endless objections among farmers, beet-leaf feeding. 
It has always been declared among- tillers that there is danger 
of lowering the general health of the animals by excessive beet- 
leaf eating, owing to the purgative effect of the residuum. This 
objection is in a measure correct; however, at the present day, 
these objections have, without doubt, been very materially over- 
come. To reply to many erroneous assertions about beet leaves 
in cattle feeding would be a waste of time; suffice it to say, it 
is much to be regretted that several agricultural journals of the 
country should have printed articles written by persons who 
certainly have had little or no experience in the subjects they 
were discussing. "Beet leaves fill up cattle; ^ * * they pro- 
duce a bad effect upon the kidneys owing to their containing an 
excess of alkalies, etc., etc.," are only a few of the theories ad- 
vanced. It has been pointed out that cows, when fed with beet 



112 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

leaves during the period of gestation, would bring dead calves 
into the world, and their milk and butter would be of an inferior 
quality, to say nothing of the resulting diarrhoea. Practical 
experience has shown the absolute absurdity of such theories. 
However, no one can deny that during the first stages of beet- 
leaf feeding there is always certain evidence of diarrhoea, but 
this laxation of the intestinal tubes is assuredly only temporary, 
lasting, we will saj^ a few weeks, and no ill effects have been 
known to follow, provided certain precautionary measures are 
taken. 

It is claimed that soured leaves give sour milk, but the fact 
of the matter is that it would require a very delicate palate to 
distinguish between the milk of cows fed with hay and that 
which has resulted from beet-leaf feeding. The observations of 
Von Schmidt are not very reliable, for he claims that such milk 
is in no way suited for the manufacture of cheese. It has been 
noticed upon several occasions that butter produced from milk 
obtained from cows fed on beet leaves is hard, but even if such 
be the case this difficulty may be readily overcome. It is 
sufficient to give to the cow or live stock being fed a certain 
amount of oil cake in order to reduce the butter to any condi- 
tion of softness that the locality may call for. It is, how- 
ever, recommended that, when one wishes to give to live stock 
turnip cake, the quantity introduced into the ration should not 
exceed one kilogram per diem if it is desirable that the butter 
shall not have imparted to it a turnip flavor. The fault found 
by Grouven with beet-leaf feeding is that this residuum does 
not contain sufficient phosphoric acid. Such assertions do not 
appear to be endorsed by modern science, as Stoklasa has shown 
that a considerable quantity of this chemical is formed in the 
leaves during their early development. However, very little is 
shown to exist, and oil cake had better be added. 
Oxalic add— It has further been pointed out that beet leaves are actually 
its influence, possessed of certain toxic influences due to the oxalic acid they 
contain. Before refuting such assertions it is interesting to call 
attention to Hertzfeld's experiments, which demonstrate that 
oxalic acid, far from being the result of the decomposition of 
the leaves, in reality disappears in notable proportions during 



CONCLUSIONS RESPECTING BEET-LEAF FEEDING. 113 

the siloing, owing to the action of a certain mushroom which, 
according to Keller, decomposes the oxalates during their keep- 
ing. Zuntz has demonstrated by his experiments that oxalic 
acid has without doubt a toxic action; oxalates, on the con- 
trary, possess this action to a very much less extent. On the 
other hand, beet leaves that contain oxalic acid in the propor- 
tion from 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, of their dry substances, 
contain it mainly in the form of oxalate of lime, which is not 
dissolved in the first stomach of ruminants, nor in the lower 
portion of the intestinal canal. However, it may be digested in 
the rennet, and if a certain amount of lime is present there can 
be no possible danger of toxication. It is proposed, under these 
circumstances, to give at the same time with a regular ration of 
leaves, 0.05 to 1 per cent, of lime as chalk, carbonatation scums 
or in some other form. The need of lime is not urgent during 
the first stages of digestion as the oxalic acid is neutralized by 
the lime taken from the bony tissues of the body. 

The body of man, and also that of animals, has the peculiar 
property, as previously pointed out, of yielding to the organism 
little by little the components requisite to sustain life during 
periods of excessive work or abnormal strain. This expendi- 
ture or absorption of lime, according to Zuntz, demonstrates 
that it is impossible to feed live stock indefinitely with green 
leaves without the addition of this calcic salt, as there would 
necessarily follow a reduction in the bony tissues, resulting in 
dangers of a very serious nature as far as the health of the 
animals being fed is concerned. 

The addition of lime to the forage in the form of chalk or 
carbonatation scums, reduces very materially, if not to a mini- 
mum, the deleterious actions referred to above. 

Gaspari arrives at the same conclusion as Zuntz and declares 
that this forage, which contains only a small quantity of oxalic 
acid, far from being deleterious, plays on the contrary an im- 
portant role in stimulating the appetite of the animals fed. It 
is further recommended by. this authority that special precau- 
tions, such as those first mentioned, be taken with the view of 
preventing accidents that may occur through this mode of 
feeding. 
8 



114 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Zuntz has made a series of experiments on sheep and has 
found that they are not afTected by oxalic acid. He believes 
that their pouch or second stomach must necessarily contain a 
substance that effects a fermentation and completely destroys 
the oxalic acid with which it comes in contact. He recom- 
mends that animals receive increasing quantities of this forage, 
and under no circumstances should the maximum be reached 
at the early stages of feeding. This idea is in striking accord 
with all accepted rules and theories of stock feeding in general, 
as advanced by the leading authorities. 
Conclusions re- Under all circumstances, as is generally admitted by those 

I ./ *^ who have given dried leaves a thorough trial, the results 
feeding. . 

obtained with them are superior to fresh or sour leaves from 

many points of view, not only as regards their nutritive equiva- 
lents, but also their keeping qualities. 

A fact never to be forgotten is that the leaves are not eaten 
by cattle with avidity at first. They must first become accus- 
tomed to the new diet, as to many other condiments. However, a 
change occurs after a few days, and then live stock in general ap- 
pear to like this fodder and to eat the same with an unex- 
pected relish. It is only under very exceptional circumstances 
that a cow, or whatever animal is fed upon this waste, will 
refuse it, and if this proves to be the case one may be assured 
that there is some organic trouble existing and that the animal 
is not in its normal physical condition, and should be medi- 
cally treated. 

In Germany excellent results have been obtained when feed- 
ing about 30 lbs. beet leaves per diem per head. As this has 
been practiced for many years, it seems curious that a practical 
farmer should not discover whether the fodder he used was 
profitable or not. Hundreds of other examples could be cited. 
A fact too frequently overlooked is, that when a sudden change 
of diet is made for dairying cows, there always follows a de- 
crease in milk production, and it remains to be determined 
whether this is due to the fodder or to the new "regimen." 

Sufficient has been said in the foregoing to point to a ques- 
tion of great agricultural importance in the future development 
of the beet-sugar industry in the United States. When we con- 



FEEDING SEED STALKS AND SEED. 115 

sider that the weight of leaves is nearly equal to one-half the 
weight of the beets, it is easy to estimate the enormous volume 
of cheap fodder farmers are to have at their disposal. 

Corenwinder, not many years since, demonstrated that a lux- Relation of beet 
uriant foliage always indicated a high sugar percentage. Accord- to leaf com- 
ing to Deherain, beets testing 16 per cent, sugar will have leaves position, 
weighing 60 lbs. per 100 lbs. roots, while leaves from roots con- 
taining 11 per cent, sugar would not weigh 30 lbs. 

The quality of the beets has an important influence on the 
saline composition of leaves; the richer the beet, the higher the 
percentage of salts in leaves. The saline elements taken from the 
soil and contained in leaves are for beets testing 15 per cent, 
sugar, about as follows: 

Potassa 5.30 to 5.7, soda 1.45 to 1.55, lime 1.40 to 1.55, 
magnesia 1.18 to 1.30, chlorin 1.44 to 1.65, sulphuric acid 
0.64 to 0.65, silica 0.35 to 0.64, phosphoric acid 1.18 to 1.20, 
various 0.78 to 0.85, in a total of 14. Strange as it may seem, 
these show 14 lbs. of important substance, taken from the soil 
by leaves, for every 100 lbs. sugar contained in the roots. 

Grouven also says that 100 lbs. of fermented leaves are equal 
for feeding purposes to 150 lbs. of fresh leaves, and equal to 
about 20 lbs. of the very best fodder. 

Attention should be called to some experiments in which cows 
were fed upon beet leaves and gave milk, from 24 lbs. of which 
there was extracted 1 lb. butter. With the same cows, but with- 
out leaves, 28 lbs. of milk were necessary to produce 1 lb. of butter. 
This would show beyond cavil, that beet leaves are favorable to 
milk production. Wild's experiments demonstrate that very 
satisfactory results may be obtained by feeding beet leaves and 
straw to sheep; he found that 57 per cent, of total organic sub- 
stances were digested. Maercker made the following experiment 
in feeding beet leaves and necks to sheep. There were two series 
of ten animals each, one series receiving 50 kilos of beet leaves 
and the other 40 kilos of residuum cossettes, to which was added 
the desired percentage of nitric elements, etc. From a money 
point of view, the results obtained were in favor of the leaves. 
In another experiment the leaves were placed at the disposal of 
the sheep, and the ten animals ate 67.6 kilos, their health not 



116 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

being in any way affected. The example may be cited of a Ger- 
man farmer who fed his milch cows very extensively with beet 
leaves, and with surprising results, for the flow of milk increased 
and the quality was satisfactory, containing 4 per cent, of fatty 
substances. It is to be noted that during the early period of 
feeding there is always a diarrhoea, which lasts for about three 
weeks, and the animal fed has a very debilitated appearance; 
then there follows a reaction for the better and the fattening is 
very rapid. Beeves fed for two to three months on beet leaves 
and tops increased considerably in weight. Under no circum- 
■ stances should leaves be fed to cattle or sheep during the period 
of gestation. Working oxen, after beet harvesting, prefer beet 
leaves and tops to almost any other kind of fodder. Farmers 
who have the slightest apprehension as to the feeding of beet 
leaves to cattle should give the product a trial in combination 
with chopped straw, etc. , to which may also be added certain oil 
cakes. If the ration consists of f leaves and ^ tops, about 60 
lbs. may be fed per 1000 lbs. live weight; if only 30 lbs. are 
fed, then it is desirable to add hay, straw and about 6 lbs. of oil 
cake. 

As a ration one may give to cattle the combination proposed 
by Grouven: For heavy cattle 40 lbs. of soured leaves and the 
same quantity of soured cossettes, 3 lbs. of colza oil cake and 
6 lbs. of hay. 
Money value of When one discusses the money value of beet leaves and tops 
beet leaves and f j.qjj^ ^ feeding standpoint their digestibility must be taken into 
account. While it is admitted that all the nutrients these con- 
tain are digestible, it is thought desirable to deduct 20 per cent, 
from their supposed money value. 

Upon general principles it may be admitted that the tops are 
twice as nourishing as the leaves. All calculations made the 
tops and leaves worth in Germany about 8.25 cents per 100 lbs. 
or $1.80 per ton, about S8 to the acre. 

In order to show the economical advantages of the utilization 
of beet leaves it is interesting to give as an example Germany, 
where 440,000 hectares, 1,100,000 acres, of beets are harvested, 
and where they do not rely upon more than two tons of dried 
leaves per hectare, which are worth 80 marks per ton, the value 



FEEDING SEED STALKS AND SEED. 117 

considered as a whole reaching seven miUions of marks for their 
sugar campaign, which is a sum not to be ignored by any one. 

The experiments made upon pigs at Gottingen, with the Feeding seed 
stalks of beet seed, showed that they were composed of onl}^ a stalks and seed, 
very indefinite nutritious value. The experiments made at 
Halle-sur-Saale experimental station demonstrated that this re- 
siduum was possessed of only a moderate nourishing value and 
had a coefiiciency of digestibility of only 64.02 per cent., viz., 
about equal to the straw of cereals in general and of rye in par- 
ticular. Old beet seed, which for special reasons cannot be 
utilized, may be ground to a powder and advantageously used 
for fodder. 



PART THIRD. 



CHAPTER I. 

Feeding' Fresli and Siloed Sxigar Beet Resldunm. 

Early apprecia- From the very origin of the beet sugar industry it was sug- 

tion of the value gested that residuum from the beet sugar factories should be 

of sugar beet ^gg^j fQj. cattle feeding, and if one consults the work of Achard 

it Avill be noticed there are a few lines respecting this subject, 

but curious to say, long years elapsed before the question was 

given the attention it deserved. 

The fact of being able to keep the residuum 'cossettes in an 
excellent condition during several months of the year, at a period 
when fodders in general are expensive, was a most important 
advantage that all intelligent farmers appreciated. 
Objeetion to Many objections were made to this residuum pulp (as it was 
its use. then called), but the arguments used were certainly errone- 
ous. Frick relates that in 1850, when efforts were made to 
arrange a fodder out of pressed pulp — the residuum of hydraulic 
pressing, which was then in vogue — the same objections were 
maintained everywhere; for example, it was claimed that cei'tain 
lice were often found in the stomach of animals fed, and that 
they had no other origin than beet pulps. Later on similar 
difficulties were contended with when endeavoring to arrange 
for the utilization of exhausted diffusion cossettes. Some 
farmers refused to recognize that the residuum contained any 
nutrients whatever, for at that time it was agreed that all 
the nourishing constituents of the products had been removed 
with the water during pressing. 

The heavy percentage of water contained in the residuum 
pulp, when diffusion was first introduced, was another argu- 
ment against the general use of this valuable product. It was 
thought that the health of the animals would suffer. 

(118) 



IN WHAT DIFFUSION CONSISTS. 119 

At first the fact was apparently ignored that the general fat- 
tening effect upon animals of beet cossette residuum from sugar 
factories, unlike the mash from breweries, was not to bloat. 
Cattle raisers, however, were willing to give the product a fair 
trial, and from that time forward certain encouraging results 
were obtained. 

It was noticed that pressed cossettes had excellent keeping 
qualities, and even when fed in considerable quantities produced 
little or no diarrhoea, and in this manner all previous adverse 
arguments were overcome. 

The manner or the condition in which this residuum from Manner of using, 
beets was fed to cows always depended upon the existing 
condition of the sugar industry; also upon the various phases 
and processes which the sugar manufactory underwent at differ- 
ent periods of its development. At the start of this industry it 
was impossible to consider or to urge the use of the residuum in 
any shape other than that in which it left the hydraulic 
presses. Then there came a struggle to convince farmers of the 
importance of combining a suitable fodder with the after-pro- 
ducts of the maceration process, and at last there was no longer 
a question of this mode. This was soon replaced by another 
method known as diffusion, which, from that time to this, has 
held its own. Furthermore, it became necessary to take into 
consideration other very complex questions, such as the impos- 
sibility of utilizing the enormous quantities of this feeding stuff 
in a very limited time, which resulted in great changes in the 
methods of keeping the same. 

At the present day no other question is discussed than that of 
diffusion cossettes. For the benefit of those who may not 
be thoroughly familiar with the question, a few preHminary re- 
marks may be of interest. 

In order to obtain the rapid and complete extraction of the in what diffusion 
sugar from the beets, the root is reduced to small slices, each consists, 
having a section closely resembling the letter V. These slices 
are called cossettes. The cossettes upon leaving the sheers are 
received in receptacles known as diffusers, in which they are in 
contact with circulating water. Under these circumstances an 
exchange is created between substances dissolved in the liquid 



120 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 



The main object 

of the 

manufacturer. 



Composition of 
diffusion 
cossettes. 



contained in the interior of the beet cells and those of the ex- 
terior liquid. These transformations take place through the 
membranes of the tissue, and there is a real phenomenon of 
diffusion, which in reality explains the use of the word. The 
substances dissolved in the liquid of the cells pass through the 
porous membrane with different velocities, which depend upon 
their condition of fluidity and the complexity of their molecules. 
The saline substances are most rapidly diffused through the 
tissues. Then there follow the sugar, amides, and, last of all, 
the albuminoids, and the cellulose and pectic substances. For- 
tunately these transformations are in direct ratio to the degree 
at which exhaustion takes place in the diffusion battery. 

The main object the sugar manufacturer has in view is to ex- 
tract from these cossettes as much sugar as possible and to leave 
behind a maximum, so to speak, of albuminoids and other sub- 
stances which are likely to offer difficulties in the subsequent 
operations of the various phases of sugar extraction. These 
transformations will end at a certain point and the exhausted 
cossettes will ultimately consist of a residuum product that will 
be very valuable for cattle feeding. 

As all the substances dissolved in the liquid of the cells and 
the order in which they diffuse are known, we are able to ap- 
proximate, with a considerable degree of accuracy, the composi- 
tion of the final exhausted cossettes. They are poor in sugar 
and relatively rich in albuminoids and pectic substances. The 
salts have also been eliminated to a considerable extent. This 
product as it leaves the diffusion batteries has about the follow- 
ing composition: 



Composition of Cossettes as They Leave the Diffusion 

Batteky. 



Substances. 



Water • • 

Cellulose 

Albuminoids 

Ash 

Extractive substances 
Fatty substances 



Stammer's 


Briem' s 


experiments. 


experiments. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


95.45 


94.0 


3.32 


1.4 


0.36 


0.5 


0.30 


0.4 


0.57 


3.6 





0.1 



DKIPPING AND STRAINING. 121 

It becomes very evident that one cannot consider these figures 
as being possessed of absolute value. They evidently vary with 
the original composition of the beets and their physiological con- 
dition, which has previously allowed diffusion to take place 
more or less rapidly, thereby permitting the dissolved substances 
contained in the cellular tissues to pass through the outer walls 
at a more or less rapid rate. 

The composition furthermore depends upon the method of ^"fl^"" '^^ '" 
manufacture, the process of diffusion and the degree of exhaust- ^ '■esiduum. 
ion to which the beets have been submitted in the diffusion 
battery. Suffice it to say that there are many sugar factories 
which allow 0.8 per cent, of sugar to remain in the residuum, 
whilst at other factories the percentage is 0.15 per cent. 
Degner urges that there be left a few hundredths per cent, of 
sugar. 

What strikes one especially in these data is the enormous Excess of water, 
quantity of water that remains in the residuum, and every 
effort should be made to reduce this to a minimum in all cases. 
It stands to reason that such an excess would be deleterious 
to the general health of the animals to which it might be fed. 
The methods proposed to reduce this water percentage are very 
different and depend essentially upon the various factories 
where they have been introduced, so that we cannot at present 
enumerate them in detail. It is customary to resort to a me- 
chanical method which reduces this water at least 50 per cent. 

The desirability of eliminating the water of diffusion pulps is 
an open question. When it is to be consumed near the beet- 
sugar factory, the product may be thrown into silos upon leav- 
ing the battery; the water runs off by natural pressure of the 
mass. This plan would not be practicable, however, when 
pulps are Xo be carried to distant farms; hence, upon general 
principles, we may admit that a reasonable pressure is desirable. 

Some authorities urge that such a reduction is unnecessary; Dripping and 
we, however, are in favor of resorting to considerable pressure, straining. 
The ordinary method of straining the cossettes and allowing the 
water to drip off, so to speak, gives only fairly satisfactory re- 
sults. Some allow the water to drain off upon inclined planes; 
the semi-strained mass is then laid on wagons, where the drip- 



122 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ping continues. Under these circumstances 60 per cent, of the 
water of the cossettes is separated, which is a fraction more than 
that which can be removed by mechanical pressing. According 
to Wicke the residuum thus obtained contains 8.5 per cent, of 
dry substances. On the other hand, Bodenbender, who has also 
made some experiments in endeavoring to drain this water from 
the product, has obtained strained cossettes containing 85 per 
cent, water. In these same pulps the water is reduced to 50 
per cent, after siloing, which would tend to confirm the argu- 
ment of Schotter, who declared that this pressing was not nec- 
essary when the residuum was not to be kept for more than 
eight months. He claimed that after this time, pressed or not 
pressed, the residuum always had the same composition. 
Cossette presses. The straining method has ver}^ little practical value for large 
factories, and it is now customary to submit the cossettes upon 
leaving the battery to considerable mechanical pressure. To 
accomplish this an almost unlimited number of cossette presses 
has been invented, but the results obtained with each of these 
are approximately the same. 

When first introduced they gave a residuum containing 9 per 
cent, of dry substances. Little by little the improvements re- 
sulted in an increase in this percentage, owing to a greater quan- 
tity of water being expressed. As a result the dry matter 
remaining in the best known apparatus is 15 per cent., and it 
must be understood, too, that this is by no means the limit that 
such machines may attain. 
Excessive There are, however, certain obstacles to be overcome, which 
pressure. ^^ ^ measure prevent the progress that one might expect. Ex- 
cessive pressure would reduce the cossettes to a paste, and this 
would be objectionable, as one looks for a certain dry pulveru- 
lent condition of the product ultimately desired, which consist- 
ency the cossettes generally possess after leaving the typical 
presses and in which form the product may be easily handled. 
Furthermore, this paste product would pass through the per- 
forated iron filtering surfaces of the presses, and would, under 
such circumstances, obstruct their proper working. An exces- 
sive pressure would also decrease the percentage of nutritive 
elements, as some would be carried out with the sweet water es- 
caping when the sides of the beet cells are broken open. 



LOSSES DURING PRESSING. 123 

According to Bartz, one loses about 0.28 per cent, of the pro- Losses during 
teid substances passing out in the sweet water of the cossette pressing, 
presses, when one ol)tains for the total weight of the beets 
worked 50 per cent, of pressed cossettes, which is about an 
average. 

Maercker, however, declares that this loss is very much less. 
He has pressed the cossettes so that they are reduced to 18.41 
per cent, of their original weight and, notwithstanding this ex- 
cessive pressure, there does not remain in the sweet water run- 
ning off more than 3.35 per cent, of the total dry substances. 

On the other hand. Stammer declares that this loss is very 
much greater, even when submitted to less pressure, and that 
the weight of cossettes is reduced to 38 per cent, with a conse- 
quent loss of 5.5 per cent, of dry substances in the sweet water 
forced out from the residuum. 

The essential reason for this diversity of data may be ex- 
plained by the composition of the cossettes submitted to pres- 
sure. The more complete their exhaustion during diffusion 
the less will be the loss of dry substance during subsecjuent 
preparing. 

It is interesting to note that in the experiments of Stammer, 
it has been demonstrated that the loss of saline substances in 
the sweet water is 32 per cent. , while for albumen and extract- 
ible substances the loss is only about 12 per cent, of the total 
original quantity. 

This same authority declares that the actual loss of nitro- 
genous substances during preparation was not more than 0.03 
to 0.04 per cent, of the weight of the beets handled; further- 
more, that before preparing, there was 7.4 per cent, albumen 
in 100 parts dry matter contained in the cossettes, and after- 
wards the percentage was reduced to 6. 56 per cent. 

Classen has also found that this loss is considerable. He has 
pointed out that even with a slight pressure the losses of nitro- 
genous substances reach 7 per cent., and the non-nitrogenous 
9 per cent. On the other hand, by excessive pressure, the loss 
is 10 per cent, of nitrogenous, and 15.04 of the non-nitrogenous 
substances. He, therefore, justly finds that these are no longer 
insignificant quantities that may be overlooked. Happily, the 



124 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



average for the general work always results in certain com- 
pensations for these losses. 

Friihling and Schultz have obtained the following results by 
pressing in a Bergreen apparatus: In the pressed cossettes there 
was 12 per cent, dry substance, and 0.66 per cent, in the sweet 
water, of which 0.23 per cent, was ash, and 0.16 per cent, 
proteid substances. Below is given the analysis of the resi- 
duum before and after preparing: 

Analysis of Beet Residuum: Before and After Preparation. 



Substances. 



Water 

Ash 

Raw protein 

Fibre cellulose 

Nitrogen free extract • . • • 
Fatty substances ....... 

Digestible. 
Albuminoids and amides 
Nitrogen free extract • • • 

Fibre 

Fattv substances 



Before preparing. 


After preparing. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


94.0 


89.8 


0.4 


0.6 


0.5 


0.9 


1.4 


2.4 


3.6 


6.1 


0.1 


0.2 


0.3 


0.6 


3.0 


5.1 


1.2 


2.0 


0.1 


0.2 



An examination of these data shows beyond cavil the advan- 
tage of pressing. 

The presses now generally used are of the Klusemann orthe 
Selwig and Lange types, the Klusemann press being the out- 
come of Schlickeysen's suggestion. 
Klusemann A side view and section of one of these presses is shown in 
press. Y'lg. 3; in many respects it is one of the best known. They 
may be seen in operation in most beet-sugar factories. As a 
general thing, they give entire satisfaction. If this machine 
does not extract the fluid as fully as the hydraulic press, it 
does, working continuously, deliver the pressed mass containing 
12 to 14 per cent, of dry substance, almost equal in value for 
cattle-fodder to ordinary beets, and also valuable as a fertilizer. 
The idea of Klusemann' s press evidently came from the clay- 
mixing machine, which has been used with so much success for 



KLUSEMANN PRESS. 



125 



mixing pressed clay with water. Here, as in the clay-mixer, 
the mass is worked by knives and screw-formed cutters, and is, 
at the same time, forced through a very contracted opening. 



Fig. 3. 




Side View and Section of IClusemann Press. 

In the Klusemann press this is effected by a perforated cone 
L. which works in a perforated cylinder, and is furnished with 
iron or steel blades placed in screw form. These blades seize 
and force down the cossettes which are fed in at the top; and as 
the cone expands at the bottom, and the cylinder is of equal 
diameter throughout, it is evident that a strong pressure must 
be given to the cossettes as they approach the contracted open- 
ing between the cone and cylinder at the bottom. 



126 FEEPING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

This press, as shown, is fed Avith cossettes, which, after leav- 
ing the elevator i?, fall into the hoi3per K. The cone L with 
its flanges then carries the mass down, pressing it against the 
circumference d of the cylinder. As already stated, the pressure 
increases as the mass is forced downward, and at the point of 
greatest pressure this escapes, H having given out fully half its 
liquid — a portion entering the hollow cone through the perfora- 
tions therein, and escaping at g, and the remainder passing 
through the perforated cylinder c into the outside case and 
escaping at k. 

The speed must be so regulated that the elevator will bring 
just enough material to keep the hopper K constantly full; and 
it is thought desirable, when the cossettes are not in suffi- 
cient volume to fill the same, to stop the machine, as otherwise 
the results expected will not be obtained. The machine 
should always be started slowly at first, and when entirely 
filled, run at a regular rate of 50 revolutions per minute, 
arranging the elevator to suit. The motion is given by a pulley 
P carrying a pinion M working in the cog-wheel D, which is 
keyed on a horizontal shaft E, the latter having also a beveled 
pinion F which works into a beveled cog-wheel C fastened on 
the prolongation of the upper axis of the cone, just above the 
box in which the axis turns. The lower axis is hollow to 
allow the liquid inside the cone to escape, and this axis works 
in an iron box provided with strong set-screws h and h' on the 
outside, by which the box can be raised or lowered, to lessen or 
increase the size of the opening of delivery and the consequent 
pressure as may be desired. 

It is not always possible to convey the cossettes by a mov- 
ing apron direct from the bottom of the diffusion battery to 
the hopper K. But frequently it is emptied in any part of 
the building, and the refuse conveyed by an Archimedean 
screw into the presses. One advantage of this press is, that it 
requires no care^ and little or no attention ; but what is to be re- 
gretted is that the pulp has not the fresh appearance it had 
prior to the pressing. Fifty tons of cossettes may be worked in 
twenty-four hours through one press of this description. This 
amount may be increased by increasing the diameter of the 



SELWIG AND LANGE PRESS. 



127 



apparatus. The force required is said to be about one and one- 
half horse-power. 

Modifications have been made by Bendel and Bergreen, also 
by Buttner and Meyer, but the general princii^le remains the 
same. 



Fig. 4. 




Vertical Section — Selwig and Lange Cone Pulp Press, 



The Selwig and Lange presses work upon an entirely differ- 
ent principle. This press, which is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 in Selwig & Lange 
two sections, presses the cossettes in the following manner: press. 

The hopper E receives the cossettes, which fall at a^ between 



128 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



cast-iron jaws, covered with perforated tin; these are placed ob- 
Hquely to one another, and revolve upon the circumference of a 
large hollow cylinder made of two conical parts. The move- 
ment is -very slow, and is the same for both disks. It de- 
pends upon the velocity of the driving pulley, upon the axis of 



Fig. 5. 




Transverse Section — Selwig and Zange Cone Ptilp Fress. 



which are two pinions that gear with large cog-wheels, these 
communicating the movement to the exterior circumference of 
the press. But as at a^ the distance between the surfaces of the 



SELWIG AND LANGE PRESS. 



129 



Fig. 6. 



disks is the greatest, and at a the least, the cossettes reach a con- 
tracted wedge-shaped chamber whose walls continually move 
towards the smallest space, and are carried around by the fric- 
tion and rotation of the disks. As the latter gradually approach 
the narrowest portion of the space a, the narrowing disks exert 
a most powerful pressure on the cossettes, while the liquid con- 
tained in the latter passes through the perforated surfaces of the 
pressing disks. The pressed cossettes, passing the narrowest 
portion a — after which the distance between the disk-surfaces 
again widens — are forced by the following mass against the fast 
scraper F out through the opening M in the jacket, and form a 
tolerably consistent mass. The pressed-out water flows through 
larger openings in the jacket, into a drain H. 

The degree of pressure on the cossette, which is in proportion 
to the distances between the disk -surfaces a„ a, can be altered 
by altering the press disks A, Aj, 
which can be moved on the axis 
C C; by set-screws provided for 
that purpose. 

The cone cossette press can be 
placed either on the surface of the 
ground, or over chambers which 
can be used for other purposes, 
provided the liquid can be carried 
off properly, since the machine 
has no separated parts, and the 
pressed cossettes fall from it at 
the height of one metre, so that a 
trans^Dorter can be run under to be 
filled, and carry the cossettes to 
another place. 

In most cases it would be best, 
especially if Klusemann's press is 
to be run with it, to arrange this 
press directly under the cossette 
elevator, in the story over the 
cossette storage room, as shown in 

the accompanying small cut. When there is sufficient height 
' 9 




General Arrangement of Cone 
I'ress. 



130 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

for the elevator above, two presses can be thus conveniently 
located. 

In new buildings, or when altering buildings, it is recom- 
mended to place the press in the factory, and not in a separate 
building, which is usually colder, since experience proves that 
the cossettes can be pressed to much greater advantage in a 
warm than in a cold place. In such a case the pressed cossettes 
can be carried by a wheeled transporter, an endless screw, a link 
belt, or some other arrangement into the cossette store-room, 
and the building need not be more than two stories. 

The press is driven by fast and loose pulleys on the shaft i, 
turning a pinion which works into the cog-wheel K. As soon as 
the hopper E begins to get empty, the press can be put to work; 
for, if it be not sufficiently filled, the pressing will not be so 
well done. It is important that all the shafts and the cog- 
wheels be kept well oiled and greased. 

The construction of this press is said to be simple and very 
strong, having no parts which are easily broken, or which wear 
out rapidly. The materials used are the best; the iron press- 
rollers D D; are chilled castings. 

The working of these presses is said to be as simple as their 
construction. The disks squeeze the cossettes with a direct 
pressure, almost at right angles. Slipping of the cossettes upon 
them does not occur, and therefore there is no tearing or de- 
stroying of their cells. In consequence of this the power re- 
quired to drive these presses is much less — one-fifth or one- 
fourth only of that of the Klusemann press of equal capacity. 

Advantages claimed for the conical cossette press are: 

1. Extraordinarily great delivery, with excellent pressing. 
Of the (3) cone presses of varying dimensions, given in the fol- 
lowing table, No. 1 has a capacity of 250,000 k, daily; No. 2 of 
190,000 k., and No. 3 of 100,000 k. ; and the work is equally as 
good as can be obtained on an average from the Klusemann 
press. 

2. Very slight power required — only one-third to one-half 
horse-power per 100,000 k. daily of beets worked, being only 
twenty to twenty-five per cent, of the power needed for the 
Klusemann press. In consequence, 100 tons of beet cossettes can 



BERGKEEN PRESS. 



131 



be pressed with this machine daily. The economy of coal is 
apparent. 

3. Great simplicity of construction, and entire safety in run- 
ning. 

4. Very little loss of time by stoppage while at work. 

5. Better keeping quality of the pressed cossettes, which also 
are not cut up too fine. These pressed cossettes are said to keep 
much better in consequence thereof in the silos, as is proved by 
experience. 

6. Lower price of these machines and cheaper setting, com- 
pared with other presses of equal capacity. 



Daily Delivery of 3 Cone Cossette Presses of Varying Dimensions. 



Dimensions, etc. 


No.l. 


No. 2. 


No. S. 


Delivery per day of worked 
beets 


225 t. to 250 t. 
1.800 m. (7U".81) 

0.60-0.70 
785 mm. 
155 mm. 

67-78 
7000 k. (15,400 lbs.) 


150 t to 165 t. 
1.450 m. (57".04) 

0.85-1.0 
940 mm. 
155 mm. 

33-39 
5200 k. (11,440 lbs.) 


100 t. to 110 t. 
1.200 m. (40".15) 

1.1-1.3 
785 mm. 
130 mm. 

41-49 
360O k. (7,920 lbs.) 


Diameter of press disks 

Number of revolutions of 
same per minute 

Diameter of dri\ang pulleys. 

Dreadth of driving pulleys. 

Number of revolutions pul- 
leys, per minute 


Weight of the press 





For the pressing of two hundred tons of diffusion cossettes in 
twenty-four hours, about two horse-power will be required. 

The Bergreen press of the old and new types is shown Bergreen press, 
in Figs. 7 and 8. Its working is based on the same 
principle as that of the Klusemann apparatus. It consists 
mainly of two cones, A and B, of which the interior one, 
B, is perforated and has a hollow lower axis, F, for sup- 
port and the exit of the expressed juice. Both cones are 
provided Avith iron screw-formed blades of which those on the 
upper half of the outer cone, J., form segments of a screw, 
while the lower portion of the screw blade is continuous, and 
almost touches the inner circumference of the perforated 
cylinder, D. In the upper portion of this outer cone the 
separate blades, e e and //, run in spiral form, but in opposite 
directions. The blades, e g, form a low, sloping screw, while 
those of // are steep. The former being also broader, spread 



132 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

and mix the mass, while the steep winding of the spiral, //, 

Fig. 7. 




Sergreen, Cassette Press (Old Type). 

forces the mass downwards with pressure. In the outer 



BERGREEN COSSETTE PRESS. 



133 



cylinder the blades, e and /, move in a spiral from left to right, 
but the similar blades on the inner cone move spiral]}^ from 
right to left. 



Fig. 8. 




Bergreen Cosaette Press {Sew Type). 

As the two cones move in opposite directions this arrange- 



134 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ment forces the cossettes from the upper broken spiral into the 
lower continuous spiral. The motion is given by the pulley, 
a', on whose axis a pinion, b, works into a large cog-wheel, b'. 
On the horizontal axis, K, two pinions of different sizes are 
placed opposite to each other, the smaller of which, c, gearing 
into the bevel wheel, c', on the axis of the inner cone, and the 
larger pinion, d, gearing into d', on the axis of the outer cone. 
It is plain, therefore, that the cones will revolve in opposite 
directions. The cones are slit in many places, as shown on the 
broken portion of B. These are covered with finely perforated 
tin, so that the sweet water may run off easily and at the same 
time be freed from cossettes. 

There is a man-hole at the bottom of B to afford access to the 
interior, and around the man-hole is a rim to prevent overflow 
of the expressed water. C is a hopper, and i i i are three iron 
bands on the outside of cylinder, D, to strengthen it at the 
point of greatest pressure. There is an outer casing, E, whence 
the liquid flows through GG into H. From the inner 
cylinder the sweet water flows into some exit through the 
hollow axis, which rests in the holloAv step, F. The cost of 
this press is greater than the Klusemann apparatus. During 
recent years another press of the Bergreen model has come into 
existence, an engraving of which is shown herewith. The 
outer portion, A, of the old model is done away with. This 
apparatus is cheaper and works very satisfactorily. 
Lallouette Another mode which for a time had some popularity, is the 
press. Lallouette press, shown in Fig. 9, which is not without interest 
as it has been used subsequently to the standard Klusemann 
and other presses. The filling may be done with a pulp-pump,* 
and 15 tons of pulp may be pressed in twenty-four hours. In 
France this press was not only used for the refuse beet pulp, but 
also for first and second pressing of the rasped beets. Mr. 
Lallouette' s idea was to diminish the water in excess in the 
diffusion pulp, so that the latter would contain no more of it 
than the pressed diffusion cossettes. His experiments consisted 

* The pulp-pump is of curious construction. The valves must be necessarily 
made large, not only to jiermit the passage of the liquid, but also of substances 
in suspension. 



LALLOUETTE PRESS. 



135 



in placing a small quantity of the pulp in the press, then a 

Fig. 9. 




JLaUouette Press. 

layer of linen cloths, then a layer of pulp, etc., alternately, 



136 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

until full— the capacity being 250 k. [550 lbs.]. The whole^ 
after being pressed from seven to ten minutes, was reduced to 
170 k. [375 lbs.], about 40 per cent, of water being eliminated. 
These several pxesses give about the same results: that is to 
say, they give 50 per cent, in weight of residuum of the beets 
worked. This product contains on an average from 12 to 14 
l^er cent, of dry matter. As was before mentioned, numerous 
efforts have been made to increase this dry matter percentage. 
The machines used for the purpose do not permit one to go 
much beyond the limits named, as otherAvise there would be 
danger of clogging the mesh of the perforated filtering iron. 
Care needed It is essential to see that these presses run with regu- 
during pressing, laxity and to keep them constantly filled with cossettes as long 
as possible. As long as they are full, the cossettes are submitted 
to a normal pressure against the sides of the apparatus, but as 
soon as the supply of the residuum decreases, which frequently 
occurs during an irregular working and the subsequent empty- 
ing of the diffusors, the residuum is not pressed and it leaves 
the presses in a moist condition. Experience shows that it is 
preferable to supply the cossettes to one press after another and 
to commence with the central one of the series, there being thus 
a greater chance of at least two presses working continuously. 
Heat facilitates There is one fact not to be overlooked, and that is, that the 
pressing, higher the temperature of diffusion the greater will be the ease 
with which the water can be expelled from the residuum. It is 
impossible in the operation of diffusion to go beyond a certain 
temperature, at which the final residuum becomes gelatinous 
and bursts open under the slightest pressure. The most desir- 
able temperature is variable and depends upon the tissues of 
the beet being worked, but upon general principles it may be 
said that it is very near 80 degrees C, at which temperature the 
cells reach their maximum porosity and allow their liquid 
to escape freely. 
Modes for facili- For several years past there has been a tendency to introduce 
fating pressing, the residuum into the cossette presses at the highest possible 
temperature, and it is for this reason that, in many instances, 
diffusion is conducted with hot water. Certain manufacturers 
have gone so far as to mix hot water with the exhausted cos- 



LALLOUETTE PRESS. 137 

settes in order to reheat them, while in other cases it has been 
customary to reheat this residuum by bringing it in contact with 
live steam. 

Maercker attempted to obtain the same result, not by heat 
but by chemical reactions. After a long series of laboratory 
investigations he concluded that when the cossettes were mixed 
with lime or alkaline salts, the cellular tissues of the product 
became very much more porous. The most efficacious method 
is the least expensive. It consists in submitting the cossettes 
to the action of 0.5 per cent, of lime, using it in the form of 
milk of lime. The receptacle in which this mixing is done has a 
suitably-arranged agitator which produces a perfectly homoge- 
neous mass. This operation lasts from 20 to 30 minutes, and 
the product thus obtained gives up a large percentage of water 
under the slightest pressure. Some investigators who have 
introduced this milk of lime treatment claim that the percent- 
age of dry substances in the final pressed product reaches nearly 
30 per cent. (?), that the limed cossettes were possessed of an 
agreeable flavor, etc. 

Siekel also recommends this mode of working, but under no 
circumstances should the residuum be allowed to be in contact 
with the lime for more than 30 minutes, as otherwise the 
physical condition of the product would be altered, and it 
would then, in a measure, be worthless for the purposes 
intended. It would be transformed in the presses into a com- 
pact mass, which it would be impossible to compress without a 
breaking of the press, and under such circumstances it would 
become necessary to cut it into pieces in order to remove it. 

Muller proposes the washing of the cossettes in lime water 
before pressing. Under this treatment the residuum increases 
in value as a fodder, and the lime will constitute later on an 
obstacle to the excessive fermentation in silos, which is always 
to be dreaded. 

The theory of the Manoury method is based upon the 
simultaneous action of heat and a suitable chemical, which 
coagulates the albuminoids in the tissues of the beet. Its 
application to diffusion consists in adding lime to fresh beet 
cossettes during the diffusion at 70° C, allowing the contact to 



1 



138 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

last for at least 20 minutes. The cossettes subsequently give 
excellent results by pressure, and their weight may be reduced 
to 15 per cent, of the weight of the beet. 

The mixing of the lime with the cossettes may be done in 
many ways. The weak juices running from the diffusion 
battery are used again instead of w^ater for the general working 
of the battery. The advantages of such practice are as follows: 
1st. Considerable diminution in the quantity of water required 
for diffusion. 2d. The saving of 0.3 to 0.4 per cent, sugar, 
which is frequently lost in the refuse water and cossettes. It 
is said that juices extracted by this method are at least as sweet 
as those from the first carbon atation, consequently the latter 
operation may be effected with 1 per cent, of lime, giving a 
purity equal to that obtained with 3 per cent, by the customary 
process. It is estimated that by an additional expense of 
^1,600 there would result an advantage of $1.40 per ton of 
beets, and for an ordinary campaign a saving of over $12,000. 
These figures, if correct, are of sufficient importance to warrant 
their careful examination by every beet-sngar manufacturer. 

Bosse urges that the several modes mentioned in the fore- 
going be combined. He submits the residuum to hot water 
and alkali during pressing, and re-heats the cossettes on leav- 
ing the diffusors in a large receptacle containing ammoniacal 
water, which is collected during the evaporation of the juice in 
the triple effect. 

Scheermesser uses in the last diffusor of a diffusion battery, 

water that is saturated with anhydrous sulphurous acid. 

Under these circumstances the resulting residuum is easily 

pressed, and the albuminoids are coagulated by this acid, under 

which conditions they will be retained in the cossettes that are 

pressed, and will not pass off in the sweet waters. When the 

product is dried and left in the air for a certain time the 

anhydrous sulphuric acid seems to evaporate, but it remains 

to be proved whether the product could be advantageously fed 

_ to cattle. 

Pulp or cossette Most farmers in continental Europe, when contracting to grow 

contracts, beets for the sugar factories, stipulate in advance that they must 

have in return at least 50 per cent, in weight of the beets fur- 



VALUE OF SUGAR BEET COSSETTES. 139 

nished. Under these circumstances it is to the manufacturer's 
interest to have the largest possible quantity of residuum cos- • 
settes. Unfortunately, very dishonest methods are frequently 
employed to obtain the same, in which case the manufacturer 
has no special advantage in submitting the cossettes to an ex- 
cessive pressure. 

Furthermore, it would be to the interest of the tiller to stipu- 
late in his contract that the residuum shall contain a certain 
quantity of dry matter. If this is less than 8 per cent, the pro- 
duct should be refused. As affairs now stand the farmer fre- 
quently receives water instead of the valuable constituent just 
mentioned, and can derive no benefit from it. On the other 
hand, when the water has not been removed the mass of cos- 
settes has considerable volume and the cost of its transportation 
is considerably higher than it should be. Furthermore, the 
nutrients contained in the product are frequently so diluted 
that they have a pernicious effect upon the health of the 
animals being fed. 

The market value of residuum cossettes from sugar factories Value of sugar 
depends upon many conditions; their composition, the manner beet cossettes. 
in which they are obtained, the abundance of other crops and 
distance from factory to farm. In most European countries 
contracts are made between farmer and manufacturer for beets 
at $.4.00 per ton, the farmer reserving the privilege of purchas- 
ing the residuum pulp at $1.00 to $2.00 per ton, in quantities 
corresponding to -g- of the weight of beets furnished. When 
pulps are delivered at farms allowance is made for such trans- 
portation. Considerable change occurs in the composition of 
the product during transit. The percentage of water increases 
cost for example, if 80 carts are required to carry a given weight 
of pulp containing 80 per cent, water, 85 carts would be neces- 
sary for transportation of the same pulp if the Avater percentage 
had been 85 per cent. 

By means of oxen the cost of transportation of pulp to a farm 
at average distance from the factor}^, is 15 cents per ton. This 
price permits keeping oxen, or other animals used, in good con- 
dition, and in a few years pays their value. Difficulties con- 
stantly arise between manufacturer and farmer; either the latter 



140 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

wants more than his contract calls for, or he maintains that the 
refuse is inferior in quality to the product formerly used. As 
the percentage of cossettes obtained varies with the saccharine 
quality of the beets worked, it is well for the manufacturer not 
to make any rash promises as to the amount he can furnish and 
the quality of the product. Hence 20 per cent, is considered a 
reasonable limit. From 100 lbs. of beets there are obtained on 
an average 42 lbs. of cossettes; the difference should be con- 
sumed by animals at the factory. 

Diffusion must be conducted under most scientific principles, 
otherwise the feeding- value of the pulp suffers. If the tempera- 
ture is too high there follows a coagulation of many of the 
nutritive elements. To protect the farmers' interest and to 
make sure of harmony among all interested, an understanding 
should exist as to limits of temperature at which the battery is 
to be worked. If farmers sell siloed pulp to their neighbors, 
they should ask double the purchase price at the factory, to 
which should also be added the expense of transportation and 
siloing. The bulk is reduced one-half, but the value has re- 
mained unchanged. 

These pressed cossettes are in some cases fed to live stock as 
fast as received or they are kept in specially built silos. Farm- 
ers collect the product at the factory in wagons or carts, or 
transport it by water in boats constructed for this purpose. 
Conveyance of Respecting this question of transportation, there is no special 
remark to be made, except that wagons, carts or boats which 
have previously served the purpose of carrying beets to the fac- 
tory and have thereb}^ become dirty on account of adhering 
earth, should in all cases undergo a special cleaning before being 
filled with the residuum cossettes. This cleaning also serves 
the purpose of diminishing the possible contamination of certain 
bacteria that frequently accompany earth of all kinds. These 
would necessarily bring about complex fermentation during the 
siloing. 
Importance of It is well to note that with forage in general it is always de- 
keeping the sirable not to allow gravel and sand, or other hard substances, 
residuum clean, ^q penetrate the mass, as these would produce a disagreeable 
sensation during the process of rumination. 



cossettes to 
farm. 



IMPORTANCE OF ADDING LIME. 141 

When it is desirable to feed the cossettes just after they leave Changes when 
the presses, it is important that it be done as soon as possible, exposed to the 
as they rapidly undergo transformation, due to bacteria absorbed ^'''• 
or taken from the air, which soon find in the cossettes an excel- 
lent medium for their development. The micro-organisms also 
existing will necessarily produce an objectionable fermentation, 
which has no relation whatever to the healthy fermentation 
occurring during the siloing. 

Cossettes exposed to the air soon give evidence of putrefaction, 
which render them worthless for feeding purposes. Under no Not to be fed 
circumstances is it recommended that cattle be fed with cossettes alone to live 
alone. However, certain practical experiments have shown that ^''"-'^• 
no special evil effects arise from this practice; but their compo- 
sition, as shown above, demonstrates that this residuum, like 
all fodders, is not complete within itself. 

Exhausted cossettes are very poor in fatty and saline sub- Feeding value 
stances. Their dry constituents consist mainly in non-nitrogen- of cossettes. 
ous substances of only an average nutritive value, their carbo- 
hydrates are mainly cellulose and penta-glucoses; but the 
reasonable percentage of albuminoids which the residuum 
contains, renders this product a fresh and valuable fodder, not- 
withstanding its heavy percentage of water, which necessaril}^ 
dilutes the nutritive substances. The deficiency of saline sub- 
stances is partly overcome by the addition to the ration of a 
small quantity of salt mixed with the cossettes, or, as is fre- 
quently done, a large block of salt may be placed at the animals' 
disposal, which they can lick to their hearts' content, their 
appetite being thus stimulated. 

It is, upon general principles, desirable to add a certain importance of 
amount of lime or phosphoric acid in the form of phosphate, adding lime, 
which is necessary for the building up of the bony tissues. As 
to lime, it is sufficient to mix with the forage any calcareous 
substance, such as carbonatation scum. This is essential, as 
many who have had experience in the special subject of cattle- 
feeding and dairying in general declare that when cheese is the 
object in view, lime should not be used too sparingly, as other- 
wise the cheese would not be possessed of the essentials for 
coagulation. On the other hand, the phenomenon of faulty 



142 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

coagulation is attributed to the contamination of the milk with 
the micro-organisms "with which the cossettes become saturated 
when brought into contact with the air of the stable. 

Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid may be supplied by mixing with the resid- 
to be added, ^um pressed cossettes any forage containing this acid in a reason- 
able proportion. For this purpose one may use oil cake resid- 
uum of various origins. These are very valuable from another 
standpoint; they give the requis^e quantity of fatty substances, 
which are entirely absent in diffusion and pressed cossettes. 
When these fatty constituents are absent in the forage fed to 
milk cows there follow certain difficulties in the production of 
butter. 
Beet cossettes in The growth of our population and the increased value of 

cattle feeding, lands, render the problem of cattle feeding much more com- 
plicated than formerly. Stall feeding is now more general than 
it used to be, but the custom in the United States is practiced 
only to a limited extent, as compared with Europe. The idea 
in view, however, in both cases remains the same, i. e., to pur- 
chase cattle at the lowest price and sell with the greatest profit. 
That the selling price per pound increases with an increase in 
total weight of the animal is a well-known fact. 

The fattening should cease when the conditions do not appear 
favorable for its continuance; that is, when interest of money 
and cost of fodder used are more than the money value of the 
daily gain in weight. The question of beet pulps for milch 
cows is of far greater importance than the average reader can at 
first realize; for, if the cost of production of a quart of milk can 
be made less than at present, there would necessarily follow a 
decrease in the selling price of that necessity of life, which 
would benefit the laboring class in general. 

The fattening of sheep with beet cossettes has of late been 
conducted on a very extended scale in the United States, not 
only in California but also in Nebraska, etc. , and it may cer- 
tainly be made profitable in the Eastern States. Wool in abun- 
dance on American soil means cheaper clothing. Without at- 
tempting any other economic argument, suffice it to say, that 
beet-cossette residuum utilization is destined to take a most im- 
portant part in the general prosperity of our country. 



DANGERS OF FEEDING BEET PULPS. 143 

No general rule can be given as to the best methods for feeding, How to feed 
as they depend upon the special circumstance of the locality, beet pulps. 
Siloed pulp, upon general principles, being better than the fresh, 
the farmer has every reason to give the silo his best possible 
attention. The ration should vary with the special animal to 
be fed; and samples of rations should not be considered as 
standard, but taken simply as guiding points in the experiment. 
With fresh pulps suitable quantities of oil cake should always 
be used, taking the precaution to mix them with a certain 
amount of chopped straw and fermenting the same in special 
vats. 

Under these circumstances it is found desirable, to accelerate 
the fermentation by the addition of a small quantity of tepid 
water. It is well to have two vats, one fermenting while feed- 
ing from the other. To avoid hot water in excess, a slow heat- 
ing of the mass is highly recommended by some; the effect of 
this system appears to be most satisfactory. 

Under certain circumstances live stock may decline the Dangers of 
cossettes; then a mild system of starvation may be adopted. '^^'""^ ''^^' 
This method, however, from the writer's point of view, can 
never be made profitable, as the loss of weight could not be 
compensated by the economy in the cost of fodder used. The 
addition of condiments is one of the best methods; a little salt 
water frequently answers the purpose, and diluted molasses is 
most excellent. It may be desirable to mix with the pulp a 
very tempting fodder, and to diminish this gradually. 

In the whole question of feeding beet pulps to cattle there are 
important facts not to be overlooked. When the pulp is fed 
fresh the main difficulty is overfeeding, or not properly prepar- 
ing the ration to meet the requirements of the special case under 
consideration. Siloed pulps undergo organic changes during 
their keeping; first, they may become mouldy, second, saturated 
with excess of alcoholic vapors, and third, attacked by a certain 
disease known as pulp malady. The portions of siloed pulp that 
become mouldy are generally at the top, being more in contact 
with the air. ' Distillery pulp owing to its acidity keeps longer, 
consequently many conclude that a slight acidity is rather 
desirable. It is a great mistake to allow any mouldy pulp to 



pulps. 



144 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

be used, as death may ensue. No one has yet discovered the 
form of bacteria responsible for the trouble. 

The saturation of pulps with alcoholic vapors is rather an 
advantage, as the cattle eat it with considerable avidity. The 
excess of alcohol in beet pulps is never as great with diffusion 
cossettes as with the hydraulic-press residuum, for the simple 
reason that the latter contains more sugar that could generate 
alcohol. During the period when presses were used as a means 
of extracting the juice from pulp during the regular process of 
manufacture, one would constantly hear of actual intoxication, 
the animals falling to the ground and remaining in an almost 
comatose state for a considerable time. After the effects had 
passed off they would rise and eat as if nothing had occurred. 
These alcoholic pulps would, after a time, cause cerebral com- 
plications. Before that period is reached the flesh has depre- 
ciated in value; this is, however, a difficulty at present almost 
unknown. 
Beet pulp disease. A few years since it was noticed that in certain parts of 
France cows fed on well combined rations were suffering from 
certain organic complications. A young bull being fattened 
became suddenly ill. No cause could be attributed for the 
same. After death the animal was examined and found to 
have suffered from serious stomach and intestinal complications. 
Fortunately such instances are of rare occurrence, but it was 
discovered that the pulp used was from a very old silo. 

The toxic elements existing, that will necessarily cause physi- 
cal complications if taken into the system, are the outcome of 
the early stages of decay of the product fed. The objectionable 
microbes are found mainly in the water running off. At first 
the animals suffering from the disease are very restless; severe 
colics soon manifest themselves, and considerable suffering and 
pain always accompany these troubles. The most objectionable 
pulps are those that have been stored for a period of months. 
Practical experiments show that if the kept residuum is heated 
to 212° F., all the microbes they contain are destroyed. This, 
in fact, applies to most bacteria. This mode cannot be prac- 
tically applied. Sodic chlorid or common salt offers one of 
the very best means of destroying objectionable microbes. This 



DANGERS OP COSSETTE FEEDING. 145 

should be combined with pulps in the proportion of 0.25 to 0.30 
per cent. It is important not to use it in excess. Every few 
days there should be placed at the animal's disposal a salt solu- 
tion, permitting the animal to use its own discretion as to 
quantity taken. 

Decomposed, or mildewed cossettes, should never be used for 
cattle feeding, as the general health of the animals fed would 
suffer. There would follow colics, swelling of the intestine, 
cramp, paralysis, etc., due to ptomaines and ferments, from 
which there is alwa3^s to be feared a continued action upon the 
nervous system. 

Arlaing attributes to sour cossettes certain diseases of the ren- 
net. Stift declares that lactic acid, when present in excess, 
always means certain complications of the bony tissues. Ac- 
cording to Gerland, notwithstanding all the water that the cos- 
settes may contain, soured cossette feeding means diarrhoea only, 
provided there has been a sudden lowering of temperature of 
the intestinal tubes. On the other hand, these sour cossettes 
increase the secretion of the kidneys. 

There certainly are many advantages in using soured cossettes 
rather than the fresh residuum, as they contain less water. An 
excessive consumption of cossettes may result in an excessive 
flow of blood to the brain or spine. Under these circumstances 
there follow intestinal troubles in the animals, resulting in death, 
owing to diarrhoea. 

All of these alleged dangers from feeding cossettes do Conclusions as 
not in any way reduce their actual value and excellent feeding to dangers of 
qualities taken as a whole and considered as forage, provided, ^^oss^tte feeding, 
however, they be not fed to excess. It is desirable that the cos- 
settes be not allowed to undergo an}' organic transformation 
during their keeping, the natural fermentation being the limit. 
Microbes that may be accidentally introduced will bring 
about complications, and it has been noticed that soured cos- 
settes are particularly favorable for this bacteriological develop- 
ment. Many essays have been written which endeavor to 
demonstrate that it is to this source that we must look for nearly 
all the diseases that cossette-fed cattle have had to fight against.- 
The technical discoveries in this matter have been such that 
10 



146 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

efforts have been made to prohibit, in the working of the diffu- 
sion batteries, the use of certain waters which are supposed to 
contain microbes. It frequently happens in the manufacture of 
beet sugar that there is a scarcity of water, and under these con- 
ditions it becomes imperative to use the water that the manu- 
facturer has at his disposal over and over again. However, 
compressed air comes to the rescue when water is scarce, and 
man}'' advantages have been derived from its use. 

While it has not been conclusively demonstrated that water 
contains germs which prove themselves to be decidedly objection- 
able, it has been shown beyond cavil that the cossettes appear 
to combine certain elements favoring putrefaction upon coming 
in contact with the unknown microbes during siloing, thus 
considerably increasing the losses occurring during this 
keeping. 

The pulp malady is a comparatively new fad among scientists 
who declare that the trouble commences in the intestinal canal; 
diarrhoea is the second stage. While it is admitted that special 
microbes have been found in rotten pulps, it is interesting to 
note that it is not from the microbe the difficulty arises, but 
through internal complications. The toxic substances formed 
may be numerous, some of which are precipitated in alcohol 
while others are soluble therein. Their action in these cases is 
ver}^ different, and recent investigations appear to show that it 
is those elements soluble in alcohol which are the most to be 
dreaded, as they cause convulsions and frequently death. None 
of these difficulties will ever occur if the pulps are boiled or 
dried. ^ 

These facts have been mentioned as offering a certain interest 
for those who contemplate cattle fattening on an extended scale. 
It is also important to note that among many thousands of 
beeves fattened with beet pulp for the European market for a 
period of years, there has not been a single case where the farm- 
ers complained of any evil effects arising from an extended use 
of the residuum. When the difficulty does occur, the farmer 
himself is responsible, as when beet pulps are fed alone there 
may be some danger of osteomalacia (softening of the bones). 
Such practice of feeding can certainly have no advantage other 



PRODUCTION OF MILK AND BUTTER. 147 

than ecoiiomy, which does not prove profitable in the end. The 
disease in question appears to be more prevalent among cows 
than oxen; the latter appear to be better able to resist any ab- 
sorption from their bony frame. Let the ration contain enough 
salts (phosphate of lime, soda, potassa, etc. ) ;* let the by-fodders 
have the saline elements needed, and the pulp malady will pos- 
sess no more than a passing interest. 

There is a great difference of opinion as regards the value of Feeding with tlie 
beet pulp on dairy farms. Some say, that under all circum- view to produc- 
stances the milk from cows fed upon the product has an un- *'*•" *•' "^^^^ 
pleasant taste and is worthless for the city market; others, on ^" "*'*'^' 
the contrary, argue that the milk is sweeter than can be ob- 
tained by the use of any other fodder; that the bad taste of milk 
is due to the use of inferior siloed pulp, which has undergone 
some alteration during keeping. The abundance of milk that 
follows pulp feeding no one doubts — the quantity is greater, but 
the quality diminished. Under all circumstances, it is certain 
that the results obtained depend as much upon the care taken 
as upon the fodder used. It would be impossible to give a full 
synopsis in the present writing of the numerous trustworthy 
and scientific experiments that have been made bearing on this 
question. However, a synopsis of a few of them are given: 

1st. The daily ration during first week for a cow Aveighing 
700 lbs. contained 38 lbs. rutabaga; the yield of milk was 5 
quarts per diem; the second week 60 lbs. diffusion pulp, yield 

* Just whether common salt, if mixed with pulp attacked by the malady, 
overcomes all complications to be dreaded, remains to be yet thoroughly dem- 
onstrated. Some French experiments appear to prove that salt does not over- 
come the difficulty. The main thing to be avoided is the use of cossettes 
that have for a period of months been in contact with the stagnant water of a 
silo. In this respect cemented silos for beet pulp are objectionable unless 
thoroughly drained and those simply made in the ground are far preferable. 
An interesting fact not to be overlooked is that the lower strata of a silo may 
frequently be worthless for cattle feeding, while a few inches from the cos- 
sette upper surface may be in an excellent condition for sheep, cattle, etc. 

When the feeding of diffusion or distillery cossettes to ordinary cattle has 
become a regular business, it is desirable to isolate the animals being fattened 
from other stock so as to avoid the spread of disease, when it occurs, to more 
valuable domestic animals. 



148 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

of milk 5.7 quarts; third week 121 lbs. pulp, yield of milk 6J 
quarts. The yield of milk consequently increased 30 per cent. 
The beet ration had little or no influence on the casein, which 
fact seems to be a general conclusion of all observers. The yield 
of butter increased 12 per cent. 

2d. Among the most important experiments in this special 
direction are those of Andouard and Vezaunaj^, who fed pulp 
in constantly increasing quantities up to 138 \hf. per diem. 
Their conclusion was that the influence of pulp increases the 
yield of milk 34 per cent. ; butter increased 6.74 per cent. After 
three months the weight of fodder might have been augmented 
40 lbs. The objectionable flavor of milk was no greater than with 
the use of other fermented fodders. Beet pulps are very profit- 
able in the production of butter and meat. It appears, how- 
ever, that the milk obtained has a special tendency to acid fer- 
mentation.-^ 
Continued feeding Klein has noticed that after a long feeding with cossettes the 
with cossettes. resulting milk contains 2.22 per cent, less fatty substances than 
it did during the early stages of feeding. Upon general princi- 
ples one may admit' that this decrease is observable in cossette 
feeding in general. To counterbalance this argument it is well 
not to forget that the volume of milk secreted increases very 
considerably under the influence of beet residuum fodders, and 
under these conditions the total fatty substances secreted are in 
reality greater than with most fodders. 

* The American farmers having given the question of diffosion cossettes a 
fair trial, are pleased with the results. Besides the cases cited elsewhere, we 
maj' mention another where 100 head of cattle were fed upon beet pulps com- 
bined with other fodders. Small cattle were purchased in the autumn at l^c. 
per pound, and were sold five months later at 3c. per pound. Beeves pur- 
chased at 2^0. live weight might subsequently be sold at 4c. , their average 
increase being 230 lbs. It is recommended to purchase beeves weighing 
1,200 lbs. at ^30.00 each; the cost of feeding, including labor, will be about 
123.00 each, total cost $53.00; such were sold at §71.50, the profit §18.50 per 
head. Under these circumstances it follows that if beet pulp utilization is not 
general it is due to the ignorance of those discussing the question. It is true 
the residuum when fresh is too bulky, but this objection cannot be urged when 
it has been properly siloed; furthermore, an extended feeding with fresh pulp 
would be a mistake. It appears to be generally forgotten that beet residuum 
from the diffusion battery is more nourishing than was the original beet. 



WATER IN BEET PULPS. 149 

All investigators have not come to the same conclusion as re- Excessive 
gards excessive cossette feeding. According to Briem when this feeding, 
cossette feeding is pushed to an excess the resulting butter will 
have a very tallow-like appearance and bad taste, which objec- 
tionable features are most difficult to get rid of, even when the 
animals receive the requisite supply of palm-oil cakes, rice flour, 
corn residuum, etc. Furthermore, certain authorities declare 
that it is a mistake to give cossettes to cows that are to supply 
milk to be fed to babies, or to animals undergoing their period 
of gestation, or even when the calf is still sucking. But all 
these views are exaggerated, as pressed cossettes constitute a 
nutrient as healthy as any known forage for cattle that are 
being fattened or for those thit are being raised. 

Schulze points out that if 12 per cent, dry matter is sufficient 
for a forage being fed to milch cows, the conditions are the 
same for cattle fed with the idea of obtaining their manure or 
for breeding purposes. 

European farmers, during a period of thirty years, have be- 
come thoroughly accustomed to using beet residuum from beet- 
sugar factories and distilleries. The product from the factory 
came from hydraulic presses and contained very much less water 
than the cossettes from diffusion batteries. Numerous discus- 
sions followed, showing that there was every advantage in using 
diffusion cossettes, notwithstanding they contained more water. 
This excess offered no difficulty when mixing with chopped 
straw or some other material that would absorb the moisture. 
Experiments show that an ox weighing 1,000 lbs. should not 
absorb more than 60 to 80 lbs. water per diem; if this hmit is 
passed the weight of the animal being fed decreases. This is 
explained by the fact that the gastric juices of the stomach are 
then so diluted that assimilation of the fodder is not satis- 
factory; besides which, as Maercker justly argues, to evaporate 
this water a certain amount of the animal's caloric must be 
drawn upon. 

The degrees of caloric necessary may be easily calculated, and 
reduced to the basis of starch— it being admitted that for every 
pound of starch-combustion in the body there is required a 
given number of degrees of heat. When water is in excess it 



Water in beet 
pulps. 



150 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

will exert a reflex action upon the albumijioids of the body. 
An exceptional quantity of water taken into the body has a de- 
bilitating action owing to the dilution of blood that it brings 
about. 

From this same standpoint it is a mistake to feed frozen cos- 
settes. The freezing occurs during the transportation of the 
residuum from the sugar factory to the stable. There can fol- 
low thereby all kinds of stomach diseases and complications. 
Such cossettes should undergo a preliminary thawing before 
being fed. 

According to Elert it is desirable to feed to animals a quantity 
of forage proportional to their percentage of Avater. The follow- 
ing per diem ration is proposed by Ahrens for horned cattle: 

75 lbs. pressed cossettes; 2 lbs. oil cake; 5 lbs. clover hay; 2 
lbs. chopped straw. 
Rations for Briem recommends that working oxen shall receive 30 to 80 
working oxen. lbs. of cossettes per cliem, depending upon the size of the ani- 
mals. Under all circumstances it is desirable that the limit of 
the ration shall not be more than 8 per cent, of the animal's 
weight. 

On some Austrian farms, oxen are worked for two or three 
months and then stall-fed for the market. In the spring of each 
year a number of beeves are purchased whose individual weight 
is never less than 1000 lbs. These are used for ploughing until 
December, and then fattened for 150 daj^s. Summer fodder 
consists of grass with 2 lbs. corn, 2 lbs. barley ground and 
mixed with barley straw. During the early winter 88 lbs. fresh 
cossettes; later in the season the same amount of pulp from 
silos, instead of fresh cossettes. During the following period, 
and according to the animal's condition, there are given besides 
the above 7 to 10 lbs. corn ground with 11 lbs. hay. The re- 
sulting increase in weight is 20 per cent. 

For oxen doing heavy work from January to May, on an 
Austrian farm, the ration was: Beet pulp 79 lbs., hay 19 lbs., 
chopped straw 4.4 lbs., crushed grain 4.4 lbs., malt sprouts 1.1 
lbs. , salt |- lb. Oxen used at an experiment station in France, 
received a daily ration consisting of distillery pulp 88 lbs., 
hay 11 lbs., chopped straw 11 lbs., oil cake 6.6 lbs. 



RATIONS FOR SHEEP, HORSES AND PIGS. 151 

Ration for bulls on an Austrian farm: Beets 22 lbs., pulp 11 
lbs., hay 4.4 lbs., clover hay 2.2 lbs., oats 1.1 lbs., chopped 
straw 9. 8 lbs. , straw waste 8 lbs. , salt J lb. Rations for live stock 
in general, as used in France: 1st. Diffusion pulp 132 lbs., wheat 
husks 8.8 lbs., corn flour 4.4 lbs., oil cake 4.4 lbs., flour sift- 
ings 4.4 lbs. 2d. Diffusion pulp 121 lbs., colza-oil cake 2.5 
lbs., flour siftings 2.2 lbs., bean husks 2.2 lbs., wheat husks 2.2 
lbs. 3d. Diffusion pulp 121 lbs., corn flour 4.8 lbs., flour sift- 
ings 4.8 lbs., oil cake 4.8 lbs. 

Sheep may be fed with cossettes when they are not being Rations for 
specially raised for their wool or selection for breeding pur- sheep, 
poses. Eight kilos, per diem per 100 lbs. weight is con- 
sidered a desirable limit. To other sheep very little is fed, and 
some claim that cossettes should not be used at all for sheep 
feeding. 

Ration for fattening sheep from January to May on an Aus- 
trian farm: Pulp 6.6 lbs., chopped straw 1 lb., hay ^ lb. Ra- 
tion at an experiment station, France: 1st. Beet pulp 5.3 lbs.; 
hay 3.0 lbs., oil cake 0.6 lbs., barley ^ lb. 2d. Beet pulp 3.3 
lbs., hay 4.4 lbs., bran ^ lb., oil cake ^ lb. For oxen doing 
very little work on an Austrian farm, the ration for 1,000 lbs. 
live weight, was: Beet pulp 55 lbs., fermented corn meal 44 
lbs., crushed peas 1.1 lbs., crushed barley 2.2 lbs., malt sprouts 
1.1 lbs., oat straw 5.5 lbs. 

The feeding of fresh pulps to horses and mules does not ap- Nation for mules 
pear desirable in all cases. On some farms satisfactory re- "Otsts. 
suits are obtained with 16 lbs. beets combined with 12 lbs. pulp 
and 12 lbs. chopped straw. 

Another authority recommends that working horses, when 
stall fed, shall receive from 10 to 20 kilos, of cossettes per 
animal per diem, and when this amount is decreased the work- 
ing power of the horse appears to diminish. Pubertz says 
horses may be kept in an excellent condition by a fodder 
consisting of 100 kilos, cossettes, 50 kilos, oats residuum, 50 
kilos, hay, 20 kilos, rye bran. Ahrens, on the other hand, ob- 
tained excellent results by feeding to horses 90 lbs. of cossettes 
per diem. 

Numerous experiments show that it is a great mistake to feed Ration for pigs. 



152 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



more than 10 lbs. per diem of beet pulps to pigs. Under al'l 
circumstances the residuum must be combined with some other 
fodder. Experts justly maintain that the intestinal canal of 
swine is unsuited for the proper assimilation of refuse cossettes 
from the diffusion battery. In certain parts of Germany potato 
pulp from distilleries is combined in equal parts with beet pulps 
to form 3 gallons, to which is added 1|- quarts of crushed barley 
per diem. 

A greater quantity than this limit brings about in swine a de- 
crease in the quality of the fat and flesh, and in some cases re- 
sults in a dropsical condition of their entire cellular tissues. 
Moreover, when such animals are fed with beet cossettes it is 
desirable that the product shall undergo a preliminary boiling 
or steaming so as to concentrate the same. It is desirable upon 
the whole, however, not to feed pigs with beet cossettes, although 
there are authorities who declare that the intestinal tubes of 
SAvine are admirably adopted to the assimilation of the constitu- 
ents contained in this residuum (?). 

Practical experiments by Simon Legrand during 94 days in 
feeding diffusion pulp to cattle gave the following results: 



Ninety-four Day Experiment in Feeding Diffusion Pulp to Cattle. 



Items. 



Quantity of diffusion pulp consumed 

Cost of pulp 

Total cost of fodder 

Total cost of cattle and fodder 

Total selling price of cattle with no 

allowance for value of manure. ■ • 

Total weight before fattening ..... 

Total weight after fattening-' 



Oxen. 



620,400 lbs. 

$705 00 
$1,188 00 
$1,197 60 

$5,607 00 
46.640 lbs. 
58,700 lbs. 



Bulls. 



310.000 lbs. 
$352 40 
$594 00 
$158 40 

$2,319 80 
22,410 lbs. 

27 ,588 lbs. 



Total. 



980,400 lbs. 
$1,057 00 
$1,782 00- 
$5,781 00 

$7,926 00 
69,080 lbs. 
86,328 lbs. 



Mixing cossettes Upon general principles it may be said there are important 
with other advantages to be derived in mixing cossettes with other fodders 
fodders, ^^d arranging the combination in such a manner that the cos- 
settes shall be 10 per cent, of the total weight of the animals fed 
in the case of oxen, and 7.5 per cent, in the case of sheep. These 



RATIONS FOE MILCH COWS. 153 

amounts are perhaps excessive. There are many authorities 
who recommend as an outside hmit 4 per cent, of their weight. 

Soured cossettes when given alone as a forage are not desirable, 
notwithstanding the fact that some experiments which have been 
made are rather encouraging in their results. Without doubt, 
from a chemical standpoint, there are certain constituents lack- 
ing to form a complete forage. They may contain nitrogenous 
elements in sufficient amounts, but this quantity is not sufficient 
to do away with other combinations furnishing additional nitro- 
gen. The proportion between the nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
genous elements may be put down as 1:8. This, however, 
depends upon the condition one wishes to find the animals in 
after their feeding, and also depends upon the work they are 
called upon to perform. In the latter case it is well that this 
relation should be 1:5 to 1:6.5. 

In all these considerations it is well not to lose sight of the 
physiological condition of the animals being fed. It is import- 
ant to combine with the cossettes a certain amount of fibrous 
substances demanded by the intestinal canal. As neither the 
fresh nor the siloed cossettes contain sufficient albumin and fatty 
substances, these must be added by the use of hay, chopped 
straw, oil cake, etc. We do not put special stress upon straw 
or ha}^, for many residuums that may be obtainable on any 
farm, such as cereals, vegetables, etc., answer the purpose. 

Eisben recommends the following rations for milk cows, per Rations for 
1000 kilogs. live weight: milch cows.- 



154 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Three Ea.tions for Milch Cows per 1000 K. Live Weight. 



Kilos. 



5 
25 
6 
6 
1 
5 



3 
50 
10 
4 
1 
3 
1 



6 
30 
25 
8 
2 
2 
1 

74 



Kind of Feeds. 



Hay 

Cossettes 

Summer straw • • . 

Wheat balls 

Oil meal 

Wheat bran 

Total 

Hay 

Cossettes 

Barley straw 

W^heat middlings, 

Malt sprouts 

Wheat bran 

Oil meal 

Total 

Hay 

Cossettes 

Beet leaves 

Cereal wastes . . • • 
Colza oil meal • . . 

Malt sprouts 

Bran 

Total 



Per cent, 
dry sub- 
stance. 
(Kilos.) 



4.25 

3.12 
5.14 
5.15 

0.87 
4.35 

22.88 

2.55 

6.24 
8.57 
3.43 
0.90 
£.62 
0.87 

25.17 

5.10 
3.75 
5.00 

6.86 
1.74 
1.80 
0.86 

25.11 



Dry matter contains 



Protein. 
(Kilos.) 



Fatty 

substance. 

(Kilos.) 



0.42 

0.28 
0.08 
0.14 
0.30 
0.70 

1.92 

0.25 
0.47 
0.14 

0.08 
0.22 
0.44 
0.30 

1.90 

0.50 
0.34 
0.50 
0.1 1 
0.60 
0.44 
0.13 

2.02 



0.12 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
O.iO 
0.15 

0.46 



0.64 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 
(Kilos.) 



1.90 
1.81 
2.40 

2.40 
0.30 
2.70 

11.51 



0.07 


1.14 


0.05 


3.62 


0.04 


4.01 


0.02 


1.60 


0.02 


0.43 


0.10 


1.62 


0.10 


0.30 


0.40 


12.71 


0.14 


2.28 


0.03 


2.17 


0.17 


1.50 


0.03 


3.21 


0.20 


0.60 


0.04 


0.84 


0.03 


0.54 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 



!■ 1:6.25 



1:4.9 



I 
11.14 |j 



When soured cossettes are used as a basis, they very mater- 
ially increase the milk production which may possibly be ex- 
plained by the action of amides upon the cells of the udder. 
Kellner and Andra have noticed that forage beets may readily 
take the place of sour cossettes in the production of milk. These 
assertions must be taken with a certain reserve, as they are cer- 
tainly in contradiction with the observations made by other 
well-known authorities. Furthermore, the nearer the beet ap- 
proaches the turnip the more characteristic will be the flavor 
imparted to the milk of the animals fed. Again, there is 
always a certain danger of acid fermentation arising in the 
stomach. 



COSSETTES AS FOOD FOR MAN. 155 

The last of these rations is proposed for oxen and cattle being 
fed for a stock yard. It is evident that all these proportions 
may be modified by the local conditions, the outcome of the ex- 
perience of the cattle raiser. The farmer himself has at his 
disposal the vast number of combinations of forages based upon 
Wolff's tables, giving the average composition of such forages. 

The data published respecting the digestibility or assimilation Digestibility of 
of albuminoids contained in the residuum cossettes varies con- residuum cos- 
siderably. According to Henneberg it is only 45.01 per cent., ^^*'^^" 
but this average is entirely too low. Morgen declares that the 
average is 76.03 per cent, for the pancreatin and pepsin com- 
bined, which in reality corresponds in a measure to the average 
of digestibility of the albumen in sugar beets. Regarding the 
non-nitrogenous elements, Henneberg declares that the average 
digestibility should be at least 84 per cent. This data demon- 
strates beyond cavil that the forage under consideration has a 
nutritive value which under no circumstances should be over- 
looked, and consequently all efforts for its utilization are cer- 
tainly justifiable. 

It is interesting to recall the various attempts made at its util- Cossettes as food 
ization in the alimentation of human beings. It is mainly to for man. 
the poor provinces of Bohemia and Poland that we refer, where 
the struggle for life is such that any commodity having a nutri- 
tive value at a reasonable price may be used. For example, 
Fricke kept with salt, for a long period, white cabbage and beet 
cossettes that had been previously boiled and washed. After 
an interval of four months this combination still possessed an 
excellent taste and could be eaten after being properly seasoned 
with oil and vinegar. 

Ottocar Cech says that in Bohemia the cossettes are first 
Avashed in cold water to free them from sand and dirt; the}^ are 
then allowed to ferment during a period of two or three weeks. 
Under these conditions the final product has an excellent flavor 
and odor, and when combined with caraway seeds is most 
palatable. 

On the other hand Naprivil combines with the residuum cos- 
settes a certain amount of beans and also lentils in order to vary 
the nourishing combination. Under these circumstances there 



156 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

was realized an equilibrium, so to speak, between the legumen 
of this vegetable and the hydrocarbons of the cossettes. A mix- 
ture of equal weight of lentils with sour cossettes gives, accord- 
ing to this authority, a nutritive combination Avhich is possessed 
of great digestibility. Hard beans ground to a flour and put 
with the cossettes give a mash which is better yet. 

Cossettes as food In Germany, at Konigstein, Hamburg and Usingen, experi- 
for game, ments have been made in feeding game with residuum cossettes. 
Hare and deer eat this product only when forced to do so. 

Experience shows that it is not desirable to allow the animals 
fed during Avinter, Avhen their stomachs are full of cossettes, to 
remain for too long a time without a reasonable amount of ex- 
ercise. Cold necessarily paralyzes the activity of the stomach 
and might result in complicated diseases that always mean death. 
What residuum From an economical standpoint the utilization of sugar-beet 

cossette feeding residuum cossettes as a forage has an enormous importance. 
means in Ger- (Germany, where the annual out-put is ten millions of dollars, is 
an example of this. If one makes a calculation using well- 
, knoAvn, established data, the value of this product, based upon 
its chemical composition, would reach forty millions of dollars 
for the Empire. If one were to consider only the fertilizing 
value of its constituents, this more than represents the market 
value of the residuum, as it is now recognized. Under these 
circumstances it becomes evident that the tiller or farmer of the 
United States makes a great mistake in not recognizing what he 
has within his reach. 

Siloing Residuum Cossettes. 

Silos for reduc- It is possible, under most circumstances, to consume entirely 
ing cossettes. the residuum cossettes of an average beet-sugar factory immedi- 
ately: that is to say, to consume them in their fresh condition 
as they leave the cossette presses. This, from many standpoints, 
is very fortunate.- In the first place, the transportation of the 
residuum means a large increase of work for animals and indi- 
viduals occupied in agricultural pursuits, during the autumn, at 
the very time when crops are harvested, and many farm duties, 
such as ploughing of the land, etc., should be thoroughly at- 
tended to. 



SILOS FOE, REDUCING COSSETTES. 157 

The factories working- under the best arrangement generally 
have a number of oxen to feed, and it is well to have a deter- 
mined amount of diffusion cossettes placed in silos at the fac- 
tory. Such silos are usually of the very best types. 

In general, our changeable American winters are disadvan- 
tageous to beet-residuum conservation, and attention to its 
proper preservation is of greater importance than in Europe. 
When building a silo, the very best material should be used; 
and as there is considerable lateral and vertical pressure, the 
side-walls should be sufficiently thick to offer the desired re- 
sistance; corners should be filled in with triangular or rounded 
bricks. 

For many years it was argued that diffusion pulps could not 
be kept in silos lined with bricks; experiments have shown 
such theories to be erroneous. Cossettes remaining for five 
months in silos thus constructed lost only 8.9 per cent, of theic 
dry substances. 

It is customary to pile the residuum cossettes in carefully- 
constructed ditches lined or not with masonry and cement. 
There are advantages especially to be derived by the use of " 
elongated silos, so that the portion exposed to the air during 
their opening shall be as small as possible in order to reduce to 
a minimum the amount that Avill subsequently rot through oxi- 
dation. The dimensions, such as length, depth, etc., as recom- 
mended by various recognized experts, are extremely variable. 

As the most desirable types of silos for residuum beet pulps 
are expensive, they are not within the reach of the average 
farmer. When beyond a certain size they must be cement-lined. 

Pellet and Lelavandier recommend that the length be 75 feet, 
width 12 feet, and depth about 4 feet. These dimensions vary 
with the conditions one may have to contend with. As to the 
depth, there are no difficulties in the way, provided the soil is 
not damp. It is not desirable to reach a depth where sub-strata 
water currents may be met. The other arguments that may be 
brought forward are based mainly upon the various conditions 
that different environments create. It is very exceptional, 
however, that the depth of silos exceeds six feet. Sometimes 
very deep silos, say 9 feet, give good results; the pulp then 
eliminates considerable water by its own weight. 



158 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

In certain cases, the size is regulated so that a wagon may 
turn upon itself in the silo, which calls for a width of at least 15 
feet. In agricultural attempts at siloing this width is frequently 
reduced to three feet. The width of the silo must vary with 
circumstances; if too great, its covering would offer some diffi- 
cult3^ However, the width should never be less than that of 
an average cart. 

It is recommended that the bottom of the silos be paved in 
such a way that there shall be two-thirds of an inch per yard 
slant from the entrance to the exit, with the view of facilitating 
the flow of water that runs off from the cossettes. In certain 
cases it has been found that this slant should be double, thus 
permitting the flow from the right as well as the left. Under 
these circumstances there is no deposit of water at the bottom of 
the silo, and stagnant water of any kind would soon contaminate 
the mass of the residuum. Sometimes it has been found an 
advantage to carry off the water filtration by certain drains; it 
has also been proposed to allow this water to collect in special 
wells, filled with stones or other material, from which, when the 
occasion presents itself, it may be pumped out. On the other 
hand, some experts advocate the building of these silos on 
porous soil. 

Complaints respecting characteristic odors of butter made 
from milk of pulp-fed cows, refer to siloed pulp. The residuum 
has become acid and undergone certain organic changes during 
its keeping, due frequently to the contamination caused by 
badly drained silos. It is important to call attention to the 
fact, that the drainage-water does not contain more than a slight 
fraction of the nourishing elements of the cossettes; its compo- 
sition, according to Vivien, is nitric elements .0020, carbohy- 
drates .0270, potassic substances .0006, various mineral sub- 
stances .0052, water and acetic acid .9818. 

It is to be noticed that the bottom paving of a silo materially 
helps the conservation of the siloed cossettes, and experience 
has shown that for a silo of average dimensions all lateral walls, 
brick or otherwise, are unnecessary, as they render only a very 
secondary service, mainly so when in especially plastic soils. 

Herzfeld says that the slope of the silos is of secondary im- 



FILLING SILOS WITH BEET COSSETTES. 159 

portance, and that the transformations that occur in the mass 
being kept depend mainly upon the degree of dryness of the 
products upon leaving presses. 

On the upper level of the silos it has frequently been found 
that certain economical advantages may be derived by the in- 
troduction of small cars, of the Decauville type for example, 
traveling over the silos on narrow gauge tracks. This arrange- 
ment allows one to carry the residuum cossettes rapidly and 
under very economical conditions from the factory to the ditch 
or silo in which they are to be kept for a period of months. 

Silos should be filled during cold weather and the filling of Filling silos with 
each silo should not last more than three days. In our climate beet cossettes. 
the beet-sugar campaign frequently commences before frost sets 
in, so that the filling would take place at the wrong period; it 
would be better at first to feed direct to cattle. Farmers should 
not forget that filling during warm weather means very inferior 
fodder later in the season. Care to have the mass of pulp per- 
fectly uniform, so as to prevent air being imprisoned, is very 
essential, as its influence is very destructive. It may be com- 
pressed as much as possible with the back of the spade or other 
flat instrument used in filling. Tramping upon the residuum 
by walking a horse or cow over the product during filling is a 
very common custom, and covering the bottom of the silo with 
several inches of chopped straw is a good practice the advant- 
ages of which are numerous. Alternate layers of pulp and straw 
are to be recommended only in certain cases. The writer is 
rather in favor of alternate layers of salt and residuum. One 
man's labor for filling and emptying a silo of 5 ton capacity is 
sufficient. 

Silos are generally open on top. Experience has shown, 
however, that advantages are to be derived from resorting to a 
covering of at least two feet of earth, in order to prevent the 
action of air and putrefaction. When crevices open, due to 
the settling of the mass, they should be closed as soon as pos- 
sible. 

The cossettes are placed in silos so that the top (we refer to 
the portion above ground) shall form slanting angles of about 
two feet, which will materially contribute towards pressing the 



160 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

mass of matter beneath. The slanting sides above ground 
should be gradually covered with earth, the latter being beaten 
down with care. After an interval of several days, this outer 
covering being well settled, another layer of clay is added under 
the same conditions. 

Various coverings for the top have been suggested, such as 
defecated scums, ashes, etc. , but earth seems to be the best of all. 
If proper attention be not given to the question of covering, 
putrefaction will continue from the surface to a depth of two 
feet during a severe winter; but if properly coveied, the pulp 
may be found in an excellent condition two inches from the 
surface. It is to be regretted that some of our farmers have used 
straw instead of earth; this is the very worst material they 
oould select for the purpose. Heavy weights on the top have 
some advantage, but the best of all, as before mentioned, is 
earth; this can be several feet in thickness, and its weight upon 
the pulp will be all that is desired. 

Experience has shown that when the silos slant from bottom 
to top, considerable advantages are found as far as the keeping 
qualities of the residuum are concerned. Silos when filled 
settle about 10 per cent., and it is to be noted that the settling 
has considerable importance, for the simple reason that a given 
volume of the product, before and after, means an economy as 
regards the cubical contents of the silos. 

It is very advisable, in order to obtain the best results in cos- 
sette keeping, especially during the period when they are 
withdrawn from the silos, to sub-divide the various chambers in 
which the product is kept into several compartments. These 
separations are made at different points in the direction of the 
least dimension by suitable walls of stone or earth, in such a way 
that even when one of these divisions is entirely open it in no 
way interferes with the adjoining one. Under these circum- 
stances it is possible to arrange so that the supply for the day 
may be sufficient to meet any possible emergenc}', and in no 
way have an influence, as far as atmospheric action is con- 
cerned, upon the product being kept in the adjoining section. 
Transformation If one leaves fresh cossettes exposed to the air there follows a 
during siloing, putrefaction after a very short time. Notwithstanding this 



TEAXSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 161 

fact, very often when the factory method of washing does not 
allow the construction of any special silos, and when the farmers 
refuse to undertake it, the product is simply thrown in piles and 
left exposed to the air. Under these conditions it becomes evi- 
dent that the factories must 'lose, or in other words make a sac- 
rifice, which under better management would have been unnec- 
essary, of a product that enters very materially into the financial 
profits of the season, when the entire bulk of the sugar campaign 
is considered. 

This organic transformation, or putrefaction, even during 
siloing, may represent a sacrifice of 30 to 50 centimetres in 
depth, meaning a considerable proportion of the total product. 
It becomes evident that the essentials for the proper preservation 
of these cossettes consist in keeping out the air and rain. This 
distinctive action of rain and air increases with the period of 
keeping, for the reason that the cells of the residuum thus 
stored become, with time, more and more open. The rain enter- 
ing carries away a large percentage of the nourishing elements. 

Do what one may, there always follow numerous transforma- 
tions in the silos; there arises a fermentation in the mass of 
all, or nearly all, of the organic substances, such as the 
non-nitrogenous, which are partly converted into lactic acid. 
Under these circumstances the cossettes are possessed of a de- 
cidedly acid reaction and may contain, according to Morgen, 
more than 4.7 per cent, of their dry substances as organic acid, 
calculated upon a basis of lactic acid. This apparently ab- 
normal quantity has very much less influence on the digestion 
of animals than one might be led to suppose. They give, on 
the contrary, a rather agreeable characteristic sour taste, to which 
cattle soon become accustomed, and furthermore they appear to 
eat the product with great avidity. 

But, it is to be noticed, that in order that the cossettes may 
undergo this lactic fermentation to the best advantage, they 
should reach a temperature of very nearly 40° C. [104° F.], 
Avithout any supplementary heat other than that found in the 
siloed mass, otherwise there would follow an objectionable acid 
fermentation, under which circumstances, instead of lactic acid, 
there would be found a micro-organism known as mycoderma 
11 



162 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

aceti, that would soon show its activity, resulting in the forma- 
tion of acetic acid, for which live stock in general have a distaste. 
Certain cattle absolutely refuse it under any and every circum- 
stance, and the product then has absolutely no commercial or 
feeding value. 

As the temperature in the silos is considerable, it should be 
measured with a thermometer and controlled. Experiments 
have been made to collect some data regarding temperature in 
silos filled with two kinds of pulp, and the difference in heat 
evolved after some time was remarkable. A comparatively 
high temperature is generally desirable, for the reason that it 
shows that fermentation has commenced. 

As regards the nitrogenous substances, they also undergo 
most important transformations. They tend to become very 
simple compounds. For example, the albuminoids are trans- 
formed into amides. Morgen thus finds in the analysis of 
soured beet cossettes 24.03 per cent, of nitrogen in the form of 
amides. It must not be overlooked that the average for these 
amides for the entire mass was not more than 8.08 per cent. 

On the other hand, pressed fresh residuum cossettes do not 
contain even the slightest trace of these substances, which is ex- 
plained by the fact that they rapidly diffuse into the juices dur- 
ing the process of diffusion in the battery. 

As the most recent investigations show that amides have the 
same nutritive value as carbohydrates, they are consequently 
very inferior to the nutritive equivalents of albuminoids, from 
which they are derived. "Under these circumstances there is 
evidently a loss at the expense of the nitrogenous elements. 
There is, furthermore, another loss, which this time is very 
direct. During siloing the cossettes settle and allow the liquid 
in suspension to run off, carrying with it a considerable percent- 
age of substances that have important nutritive value. 

In all silos it necessarily follows that during the fermentation 
the hydrocarbons undergo alterations, and there will be formed 
an acid of the fatty series and also carbonic acid. 

Morgen has shown that in the gases that appear to be im- 
prisoned in the upper layers of the cossettes, there exists 3.5 per 
cent, of anhydrous carbonic acid. Under these circumstances 



TRANSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 



16J 



one obtains a mass that is grayish in color, with here and there 
certain spots of more or less blackish appearance, pasty in tex- 
ture, and after a reasonable period no longer possessing the 
characteristics of the original pressed residuum, all its primitive 
structure, organic, etc., having disappeared. 

The principal centers for change in silos are along the sides 
and in corners; and no well-built silo should have angular 
corners, otherwise a thorough cleaning when emptied would be 
impossible. The shape of a silo has consequently an important 
influence upon the keeping of the cossettes; most experts say 
that the sides should be vertical, so that there will be a regular 
pressure of the pulp by its own weight. The writer much 
doubts if vertical sides accomplish all that is desired; an in- 
verted truncated pyramid would be better. No experiments 
have been made in this direction, so it should not be attempted 
unless there be in advance some certainty as to results. 

According to Liebscher, fermentation diminishes after the 
sixth day of siloing, and when the fifteenth day is reached the 
temperature of the mass undergoes little or no change, and is 
about the same as that of the ground in which the ditch has 
been made. These transformations, as regards the chemical 
composition of the products, are shown in the table which 
follows, as given by Maercker: 



Early Chemicai, Changes Dxjeing Siloing (Maercker). 



Constituents. 


Fresh pressed 
cossettes. 


Dry Soured 
matter. cossettes. 


Dry 
matter. 


Water 


89.77 per cent. 
10.23 

0.58 " 

0.05 

2.3J 

6.32 


100.00 per cent. 

5.67 

0.49 
23.36 
61.78 


88.52 per cent. 
11.48 

1.09 

Oil 

2.8 

6.41 






100.00 per cent. 

9.5 

0.95 
24 39 " 


Ash 

Fatty substance 

Cellulose 


Nitrogenous substances. 


55.84 



From this data one may conclude that during the keeping of 
the residuum its percentage of dry substances, such as ash, fatty 
constituents, cellulose . and nitrogenous elements, is materially 



164 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



increased. Whilst this increase is true as regards the fatty con- 
stituents (it is to be noticed that albuminoids under certain con- 
ditions, through decomposition, can give fatty constituents), 
this phenomenon is very misleading as far as the other com- 
pounds are concerned, for the simple reason that there is a cer- 
tain water percentage which has been lessened, and there con- 
sequently follows a corresponding increase in the dry substances. 
It is well to understand that there has not been a corresponding 
loss of these dry constituents, for whatever may be the loss of 
these it is never proportional to the losses of watery vapor, 
whatever they may be. While the loss of water may be 40 
per cent., it does not necessarily carry with it 40 per cent, 
of different compounds forming the actual constituents of the 
cossettes proper, which fact may be noticed by the relatively in- 
creased nutritive value of the material. The fact is, that the 
actual analysis of soured cossettes shows the material advantage 
of submitting the fresh product to some siloing. Gradually, 
as the period of their keeping progresses, this phenomenon, or 
transformation, so to speak, becomes more and more pro- 
nounced, as the analysis of Petermann evidently proved. 

Chemical Changes Dtjeing Prolonged Siloing (Petebmann). 



Constituents. 


Cossettes after 8 
months' keeping. 


Dry 
matter. 


Cossettes after 2 
years' keeping. 


Dry 
matter. 


Water 


87.8 percent. 




83.98 per cent. 




Dry matter 


12.2 


100.00 per cent. 


16.02 


100.00 per cent. 


Ash 


1.02 " 
0.08 " 


8.36 
0.65 


2.96 
0.74 


18.48 


Fatty substances 


4.62 


Cellulose 


2.67 " 


21.89 


5.06 


31.59 " 


Albuminoids ... 


1.00 " 

(Organic nitrogen) 
0.16 per cent. 


8.2 


1.83 " 

(Organic nitrogen) 
0.29 per cent. 


11.42 


Carbohydrates . 


7.43 " 


60.9 


5.43 


33.89 



Unfortunately the keeping in silos of a product such as this 
necessarily means a considerable loss, that in certain cases 
amounts to from 40 to 45 per cent., do what one may, and one 
must make the best of these conditions. , Notwithstanding the 



TRANSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 165 

fact that the residuum may be kept for a longer period and may 
undergo considerable organic changes, it may always be utihzed 
to advantage in cattle feeding. 

During the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, it was to be noticed 
that m Germany there was a marked decrease in the number of 
cattle, and for a time there were certain fears entertained that it 
would be impossible to find means of getting rid of the enor- 
mous quantity of residuum cossettes that were left after the 
sugar campaign. These arguments were very misleading, for 
the simple reason that the product was properly siloed not only 
by the farmers but by the manufacturers, and while practically 
only used in some cases two years afterwards, extraordinary 
benefits were derived from this practice. The total number of 
head of cattle soon became normal, but as the consumption at 
first was comparatively small there was necessarily an increased 
demand for fertilizers, which consequently brought to light th6 
possible fertilizing value of this residuum. 

Dohrn has also kept this material for a year and a half and 
was perfectly satisfied with the results he subsequently obtained 
in feeding. 

Unfortmiately these organic losses during siloing are not the 
only ones to be considered. The analysis shown above would 
lead one to believe that there has resulted a certain amehoration 
which in reality does not exist. On the contrary, digestion 
experiments according to the methods of Stutzer, while they 
do not prove very much, claim to show that there is a mistake 
in supposing that the siloed cossettes are improved after a pro- 
longed keeping. 

Experiments by Morgen show that the digestibility of nitro- 
genous substances is 83.2 per cent, for the soured cossettes a. " 
compared with 76.3 per cent, for the fresh cossettes. Saillard's 
experiments show that the digestibility for the siloed cossettes 
is only 73 per cent. But all these investigations prove nothing 
as regards the condition in which the nitrogenous substances 
exist in the residuum, for the simple reason that a certain 
amount of these constituents consists of ammonia, the nutri- 
tive value of which may be considered nil. Regarding these 
losses different authorities, adopting numerous modes of siloin^ 
have arrived at very different results. *" 



166 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

The variation of these data may be mainly explained, especi- 
ally in the case of Maercker, by the fact that in these observa- 
tions all the decomposed copsettes have been deducted from the 
calculations as having no feeding value. Under these condi- 
tions there is an important margin of variation that is open to 
discussion. 

The experience of Liebscher shows that it is possible, from a 
practical standpoint, to reduce these losses very materially by 
certain precautionary measures. Herewith are his observations 
for a period of keeping lasting 108 da^'s: 

Stone silos with stone covering, total loss 7.3 per cent. 

Stone silos with earth covering, 6.5 per cent. 

Cemented silos with stone covering, 6.7 per cent. 

Cemented silos with earth covering, 5.2 per cent. 

It is difficult to reconcile this data with the assertion of 
Maercker, who declares that with the best-arranged silos these 
losses cannot be brought below 20 per cent. The truth is to be 
found between the two extremes of these and other authorities. 

It has been recommended that, in order to diminish the 
losses, one alternate in the silos successive layers of other sub- 
stances than cossettes, so that there follow in regular order hay 
and chopped straw, or other forage capable of absorbing the 
liquid running from the residuum and thereby preventing these 
losses. 

According to Rabbetge, it is desirable to mix with the cos- 
settes 5 per cent, of chopped straw. Von Ehrenstein declares 
that besides the virtue the straw has of absorbing the liquids, it 
possesses the advantage of undergoing a transformation in the 
silos which in reality increases its digestibility. 

Pellet and Lelavandier have demonstrated that besides the 
advantages of straw just mentioned, it penetrates the mass and 
becomes rapidly heated, and under these circumstances attains 
within a very short time the requisite temperature for satis- 
factory fermentation. They recommend that at the bottom of 
the silos there be placed about one inch of chopped straw, then 
three to five inches of cossettes, then one inch of straw, etc. 

Strange as it may seem, a German authority declares on the 
contrary that the losses are greater with straw than without it, 



SURFACE SILOING. 167 

and this assertion seems to be endorsed by manj^ of the leading 
authorities who state that Avith straw in the silos the mass 
undergoes considerable loss of dry substances. 

Mixing of pulp with molasses is practiced by some farmers; 
the sugar thus introduced is soon converted into alcohol and 
carbonic acid. The fermentation is very active and must be 
watched. Excess of alcohol in pulps may in certain cases be 
very objectionable. Just whether the sugar added does facili- 
tate keeping remains to be demonstrated. 

Other investigators have endeavored to establish a very radi- 
cal method. They attribute all these losses to fermentation, 
and attempt to do away with it entirely. They apparently 
justly declare that such losses are not justifiable, even when 
making allowance for the advantages gained, such as giving to 
the cossettes all the qualities of taste that cattle seem to relish. 
They go so far as to propose to mix the residuum with some 
antiseptic, such as salicylic acid or borax (^ oz. of borax per 
100 lbs. cossettes). The results obtained were no more encour- 
aging than those realized by the addition of lime or salt, which 
has the opposite object in view, that is to sa}'- to actuate the 
fermentation. Lime helps the fermentation by the formation 
of butyric acid, which gives to the cossettes, however, a disa- 
greeable flavor. 

All chemical substances added to cossettes have but the effect 
of putting them into such condition as will cause them to be 
rejected by the animals to which they are fed. 

It may be admitted upon general principles that the cossette Surface siloing, 
residuums will be possessed of keeping powers provided the 
water they contain can drain off, and that the product be well 
protected from the rain and variations of the exterior air. A 
very simple arrangement for surface siloing is shown in Fig. 10. 
On each side of the pile are suitable ditches that carry off the 
dripping water from the moist pulp; the earth covering is 
taken from the ditches. A and B show layers of straw pro- 
jecting beyond the sides, and these act as drains from the in- 
terior. 

The system of surface storing of beet cossettes as it exists at 
Alvarado, in connection with the silos and the dairy, is fully 



168 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



described in a bulletin of the California experiment station. 
There is a large trestle that carries the beet residuum from the 
factory and drops it into the silo below. 

"The silo is 460 feet long, 80 feet wide and 8 feet deep. It 
is floored and sided with two-inch planks, and the sloping sides 




Simple Style of Surface Siloing. 

are supported by heavy posts, set in the ground and braced with 
strong timbers. Three tracks run through the silo, one on each 
side and one in the centre, on which a car is drawn by a horse 
to carry the pulp to the cattle barns several rods distant." 

Another silo built on the same principle is shown in Fig. 11. 
This may be made of the roughest sort of lumber, and of any 

Fig. 11. 




Stir face Siloing Using Zitimher. 



size to suit the convenience of the feeder. This silo is 12 feet 
wide, 30 feet long and 6 feet deep, and will hold about two 
car-loads of cossettes. 

Figure 12 represents a simple and cheap way of constructing 
a silo by excavating a passage through, or in a hill. "The bot- 
toms should be planked in all such cases and means provided 



SURFACE SILOING. 



169 



whereby the water draining from the cossettes may be easily and 
quickly carried off. The planks should, therefore, set well up 
from the ground and be far enough apart to leave a crack be- 
tween them after they have swelled with the contact with moist- 
ure from the cossettes." This silo may be made of any desired 
size. One used by a well-known feeder is 600 feet long, 50 feet 
deep, 20 feet wide at the base and 80 feet wide at the top. The 
bottom only is planked, and has gutterways under the floor, so 
as to thoroughly drain the cossettes. The silo is filled by 
means of carriers bringing the residuum directly from the sugar 
factory to the upper part of the silo when the carrier is dumped. 
In the small silo shown in the figure the filling can be done by 
driving the wagon alongside the top of the silo and shoveling 
the cossettes into it. Satisfactory results have been obtained in 
France with the wood-built silo shown in Fig. 13. 









Fig. 12. 







;•-■ "■■'/v^iJ/',**'^^ '.'i.' 






Silo Formed by JSxeavatino Hillside. 



Just within what limits this is suitable to our cold climate 
experiments alone can determine; on the other hand, for Cali- 
fornia, the method would be excellent. Silos of this type are 
90 to 100 feet long by 12 to 16 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches in 
height. The bottom is made of ^ones placed on end, with 
sufficient grade to carry off the water from the mass of pulp 
into lateral drains communicating with a special manure pit. 
Wooden posts, seven inches square, penetrating the ground at 
least 12 inches, are placed vertically at intervals of six feet; these 
are held in position horizontally by iron bars J inch in diameter, 
which overcome any lateral pressure. 



170 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



The sides of the silo consist of boards 12 x 1 with an interval 
of one inch between each, and all should have a thick coating 
of tar. To facilitate filling and assure keeping the mass in 
good condition, the silo is divided in two parts by a partition of 
posts and boards. The silo may be filled by use of a wheel- 




Stirface-Built Silos for Seef Ftilp as used in France. 

barrow from a plank slanting up from the ground; the iron 
braces are placed in position gradually during filling, and with- 
drawn as the silo is emptied. The capacity of a silo of this 
type is 300 tons. It is claimed that the loss during keeping is 

Fig. 14. 




very slight, as excessive fermentation is not to be dreaded, 
owing to the facilities offered for drainage between the boards 
and at the bottom. 

A curious custom of some farmers is not to cover the pulp, 
but simply to keep the upper surface level; the entire mass is 



SURFACE SILOING. 



171 



then used just as it is, after having been exposed to the air for 
a period of months. 

Silos beneath the surface of the ground are very variable in 
shape, size, etc. A very simple dug-out type that has met 



Fig. 15. 




JSorizontal Section of Underffroiind Silo for lieet Pulp, 

with considerable practical success is shown in Fig. 14. The 
drainage consists simply of a few small stones. The water 



Fig. 16. 




r^-m 



Vertical Section of Undergroimd Silo for Beet JPrilp. 

from the portion above ground drips through the straw layers A 
and B into the side ditches from which has been taken the 
earth covering. 



172 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, 

A most interesting, well constructed type of underground silo 
of 4,000 cubic meters capacity intended for distillery beet resi- 
duum was seen by tbe writer at the Ferme de la Briehe, France. 
The refuse is carried from mash tubs in cars C (Fig. 15), in 
which it is mixed with chopped straw, hay, etc. A movable 
partition P (19.68 X 11.48 feet), having the exact dimensions of 
the silo's cross section, is mounted on wheels and placed a short 
distance from the end wall. The intervening space is filled 
with closely packed pulp, thus preventing ferm.entation, and a 
layer of 10 inches of earth covers the top. The partition is 
moved backward, and the foregoing operations are repeated. It 
is said that beet pulp, under such conditions, will keep for 
years; it is taken from the silo in vertical slices. 



CHAPTER 11. 
Dried Residuum Cossettes. 

Upon general principles fresh or siloed cossettes, considered as 
a forage, entail certain complications in connection with their 
feeding, keeping, handling, etc., hence there must necessarily 
be some advantages in their drying. 

The first really serious experiments made in this direction Early efforts, 
were those of 1878, by Blossfeld, who at that period had con- 
ducted quite a propaganda for the encouragement of the idea 
of cossette-drying that he had been expounding, and the neces- 
sity of discovering some practical means for overcoming the 
many difficulties involved. This idea was not well under- 
stood by the German farmers and sugar manufacturers until 
1883, when a prize of fifteen thousand marks ($3,750) for p^ j^^ f(,f g jfy^r. 
some practical solution of this question was proposed. In 
order to make the question thoroughly clear in the eyes of those 
interested in the subject certain conditions were stipulated, viz. : 
The dried pulp should contain only 14 per cent, water, about 
the same as hay — it should be without any perceptible odor, 
and not burnt during drying; the loss of nutritive elements 
should not be more than 8 per cent. ; the expense must not be 
more than about 2-| cents per 100 lbs. of pressed cossettes used. 

Buttner and Meyer were awarded this prize, and their 
apparatus, which has actually a great practical value, was the 
starting point for the realization of an idea that has since been 
of considerable importance to the would-be feeders of this beet- 
cossette residuum the world over. 

Since then numerous installations of this plant have been Objections to 
made, and these continue to increase in number. It must be using dried 
said that from the start when this dry product was introduced <^ossettes. 
upon the market, it met with much opposition from those who 
had occasion to avail themselves of this valuable forage, and it 

(173) 



174 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

was frequently looked upon with a certain misapprehension. 
The arguments advanced showed that a very indefinite idea was 
possessed by those discussing the question, and for this reason 
they need not all be mentioned here. 

It is interesting, however, to call attention to the farmers' 
assertion that it was paradoxical to assert that a handful of the 
dry product could have the same nutritive value as a bucketful 
of the moist substance from which it was made. These argu- 
ments occasioned numerous agricultural gatherings at which 
the entire question was discussed upon a very practical basis. 
• The rural press of the country took up the question and the 
actual outcome has been that dried cossettes are now con- 
sidered as a staple commodity upon the German market. 
The principal To Maercker and Morgen is justly due the credit of having put 
promoters, aside, through their numerous publications, all the erroneous 
assertions of many of the would-be scientists who attempted to 
cry down this valuable product. 

Before mentioning exactly in what the practical solution of 
cossette drying consists, it is important to insist upon the 
necessity of these cossette dryers producing a product which 
shall contain the greatest profitable proportion of dry sub- 
stances; and from this standpoint one may notice that since the 
cossette desiccating appliances were first introduced, the per- 
centage of dry matter contained in the pressed cossettes has 
risen from 12 per cent, to 16 per cent., which means that 
Limit of press- there is 30 per cent, less water to be evaporated than there was 
ing. formerly, this phase of the question representing considerable 
fuel economy. 

In the chapter devoted to siloed cossettes, we discussed the 
efforts made to reduce the water in pressed cossettes and conse- 
quently to increase the percentage of dry matter. The limit of 
16 per cent, should not be exceeded for the simple reason that 
there would always follow a considerable loss of dry substance 
in the sweet water running from the presses. No solution other 
than the customary pressing has been found. 

When one considers the enormous volume of cossette residuum 
leaving the average beet-sugar factory, it will be seen that it 
would be by no means practical to run this product through 



HOT DIFFUSION FACILITATES PRESSING. 175 

hydraulic j^resses, as once suggested. With the modern cossette 
presses there would be no advantage in pushing this pressure 
beyond the hmit it now attains, when drying is the object in 
view, as practical experience shows that when this pressure has 
attained a certain crushing limit, drying them is next to impos- 
sible, as the heated gases that are in such furnaces cannot ac- 
complish the object in view. They would carry with them 
during their circulation a large percentage of the finer particles 
of which the product consists. 

Buttner & Meyer some years since forced the cossettes through Liming before 
perforated cylinders combined with a slanting spiral arrange- dfy'ig- 
ment which was in close communication with another recept- 
acle containing milk of lime, in which the residuum became 
saturated with lime. It was subsequently strained before leav- 
ing the upper parts of the cylinder. 

Without doubt, lime has great influence upon the cellular 
texture of the beet slices being treated, and will often permit a 
greater percentage of water to escape; but independent of certain 
mechanical complications that we need not mention here, there 
is always danger of hardening the cossettes. It frequently 
happens that the fuel used for the drying in this appliance con- 
tains sulphur. The gases of the furnaces will then be saturated 
with anhydrous sulphurous acid, which, coming in contact with 
the lime of the cossettes during their working in the Buttner & 
Meyer dryer, would result in a certain calcic deposit. 

Herzfeld called attention to the fact that after a reasonable 
period of keeping, this dry residuum threw out sulphuretted 
hydrogen, notwithstanding the fact that it contained almost 
insignificant traces of this chemical. 

At the present time, liming of residuum cossettes has been 
practically abandoned, and there remain now only the natural, 
dry cossettes, which product is becoming yearly more and 
more popular. 

As the emptying of the diffusors of the diffusion battery may Hot diffusion 
now be automatically accomplished, the battery may be worked facilitates 
at a high temperature. This greatly facilitates pressing, as it is '"^^^^ "^" 
practically shown that cossettes lose, during their pressing when 
hot, a greater percentage of water than when pressed cold. 



176 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Such being the case it becomes imperative to re-heat this 
residuum in the diffusor, which operation becomes possible by 
using hot water, and to carry the product as simply and as 
Cjuickly as possible to the cossette presses. 

The Pfeiffer compressed-air mode for employing the diffusors 
is certainly very practical in its working. Besides the direct 
advantages of hot cossette pressing, there is a direct fuel econ- 
omy, as the residuum is introduced into the dryer in a warm 
condition, resulting in that much gain in the caloric which must 
be furnished to accomplish the desired drying. 
Waste gases for Drying may be most economically accomplished by using the 
drying. gases escaping from the grates of the boilers, and which com- 
bine with the gases in the special generators. It is claimed 
that there is thus produced an intense gas circulation, which is 
very favorable to the residuum desiccation, without danger of 
cooling or any loss of heat. It is claimed furthermore that 
during this special drying the cossettes will not absorb any of 
the gas combination, as the water they contain must increase 
1700 times in volume before becoming steam, and that under 
these circumstances there is created a current of vapor sufficiently 
violent to prevent any direct contact between the cossettes and 
the gas proper. 

Experiments have shown that to properly utilize this lost 
heat from the boilers would necessitate the building of a very 
large and expensive appliance. Furthermore, steam boilers are 
rarely arranged as they should be, and an enormous amount of 
gases is always liberated from them that cannot be utilized, and 
that is unfortunately supersaturated with soot, their working, 
moreover, being very irregular. 

The construction of a special furnace for accomplishing the 
object in view, is the main point on which our attention should 
be centered. It has been found desirable to obviate the contact 
of the gases with the residuum cossettes, in order to prevent 
their contamination. All combinations that have thus far 
been devised are not very serviceable in their general work- 
ing, from an economical standpoint, for the simple reason 
that there always follows an enormous loss of heat through 
radiation. 



RATIONAL APPLIANCES LED TO POOR RESULTS. 177 

It has frequently been suggested that for the drying of litilization of 
cossettes, the lost heat from the various appliances of sugar '"^^ ^^^^ '^"^ 
factories should be used. Investigations in this direction have 
been centered upon the utilization of the supposed latent heat, 
but up to the present time the results obtained have been by no 
means encouraging. 

On the other hand, many experts have denied the existence 
of stored-up heat of evaporation, because they believed that in 
order to evaporate the water of the heated cossettes in the fur- 
nace it was sufficient to circulate air in the drier, which, owing 
to its natural hygroscopic power, would become supercharged 
with the watery vapor. A fact that has been apparently over- 
looked is that a complete realization of this phenomenon would 
have necessitated a supplementary expenditure of caloric. 
Finally, experiments were made to utilize the caloric contained 
in the water evaporated, in the same way as this is realized in 
evaporating appliances, such as triple and multiple effects as 
used in the sugar factories. The substance here dealt with is, 
unfortunately, not as fluid as is beet juice, and all facts con- 
sidered it is difficult to arrange an apparatus, or combination 
of appliances, that would meet all the numerous demands of 
beet cossette drying. The transfering of the cossettes from one 
receptacle to another cannot be accomplished with the same 
ease as is possible when handling liquids. In order to over- 
come this difficulty it has been proposed to reduce cossettes to 
a sort of paste. Furthermore, the cossettes have not the same 
contact with the heating surface of the evaporator as is possessed 
by liquids, and the co-efficient of heat transmission falls very 
low. The multiple effect mode of desiccation would demand 
appliances of a stupendous size. 

All efforts to apply the rational principles of economy in this Rational appli- 
operation of cossette drying have failed, and, strange as it may ances led to 
seem, the most irrational apparatus yet devised has apparently P*"'' f^sults. 
led to the most practical results. The rational application of 
heat, based upon the principle of counter currents, in which 
the cossettes will come in contact with gases of an increasing 
temperature, was not successful, for the simple reason that the 
residuum was burned. 
12 



178 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, 

The inventions to overcome this difficulty are extremely 




j^^^^^j^^ ^m^^V^k^vvvv^^k,^^^ ^ ^ 



P 



; J 



^ 



H 



U 



'^s 



^rr]^ 



^ 



' '.^.WWW.t.^.WkV i ^W^VWkk'v'.^k'^k'v'vkVW 






^w^mi^^vv^^^^^^mv^^^ 



numerous and could not be even mentioned in this writing. 
We shall center our attention on three appliances, which are 



MACKENSEN DRYER. . 179 

considered to be standard and practical in working. These are 
the Mackensen, the Petr}' & Hecking and the Buttner & Meyer. 

With the Mackensen apparatus several hundred tons of cos- Mackensen 
settes directly from the presses may be dried per diem. This dryer, 
apparatus consists of two long drums in forged iron (I and 
II), about 43 feet in length and 4^ feet in diameter, each 
of which is composed of three sections, having iron rings 
at each of their extremities, and working on trolleys. Their 
rotatory movement corresponds to a velocity of five to six 
revolutions per minute. The pressed cossettes fall by K into 
the first drum, passing through the same very slowly, and the 
hot gases from the furnace move in the same direction. In the 
first drum the temperature of these gases is about 140° to 150° C. 
The motion of the cossettes is produced partly by the current of 
hot gases that carry them and also by a heating apparatus ar- 
ranged as a spiral inside of the appliance. The early arrange- 
m'ent had a fire-grate, over which air passed, in front of each 
cylinder. At E they fall into an oblique spiral, iJ, which raises 
and compels them to fall into the second drum, where the tem- 
perature is about 230° F. The hot gases are drawn off by the 
so-called exhauster, M, and penetrate a dust chamber where the 
pulps that have been carried forward are deposited. The cos- 
settes on entering the second drum contain 50 per cent, to 60 
per cent, moisture. They give up their remaining moisture on 
entering the second drum, II, and fall upon the spiral, F, which 
conducts them to the elevator, by means of which they are car- 
ried to the loft or store-room. Two drums are sufficient for a 
factory slicing 150 tons of beets per diem. The motive power 
for all the drums, spirals, lifts, etc., is not more than 15 to 20 
horse-power. The entire plant does not mean an expenditure 
of more than 55,000 marks to 60,000 marks [$13,500 to $15,- 
000], including building, chimneys, etc. 

Residuum having originally 85 to 90 per cent, water, retains 
only 8 to 12 per cent, when the operation is complete. Con- 
sumption of coal is about 180 to 220 lbs. per 100 lbs. of residuum 
dried. In Germany, the product finds a ready market at about 
$27 per ton. The actual cost of the method is $16.80 per ton 
of dried product obtained. The dail}^ production being 18 tons. 



180 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



the daily cost of working is about $300. The shape of the cos- 
settes has an important influence on the working of the machine. 







The Retry- The Petry & Hecking dryer consists of several successive 
Hecking dryer, chambers in the shape of a trough, in which the agitators 



BUTTNER AND MEYER DRYER. 181 

revolve, forcing the cossettes to move forward and projecting 
them from one compartment to another through the openings 
that are arranged in the separating division. These passages 
are not in each case in the same position, and under these cir- 
cumstances the gases and cossettes are forced to take a zig-zag 
motion in passing through the apparatus. In this dryer, as in 
the apphance already described, the gases move in the same 
direction as the cossettes, but they leave them before reaching 
the last compartment of the apparatus, from which they are 
drawn off by a ventilator, V, which forces them to first pass 
through the so-called " cyclones," C, and then into the channel, 
K, placed beneath the last heating chamber, which receives its 
caloric indirectly, i. e., without danger of burning the cossettes. 
But they leave this last compartment to fall ultimately thor- 
oughly dried into the spiral, S. It is important to rectify a 
very erroneous assertion advanced by the inventors of this 
dryer. They claim that the gases on leaving the division before 
their final exit, heat the last chamber, and thus allow the 
utilization of the latent heat of water evaporation held in sus- 
pension by the circulating gases. This is an erroneous theory; 
as it is impossible for water evaporated from the cossettes to 
become re-heated to any considerable extent so as to be again 
utilized for future work. From the very time that water has 
passed into the condition of steam it becomes an inert gas, 
which mixes with the hot gases and can no longer condense in 
transmitting its heat to the cossettes, unless the residuum, for 
one reason or another, has become cooled at the very time that 
the water evaporated was liberated, and there is no possible 
reason for such cooling. Experiments show that 2,539 kilos of 
coke are needed to dry 21,000 kilos of cossettes in twenty-four 
hours. One man can attend to an apparatus of 100 tons 
capacity per diem. 

Notwithstanding the numerous efforts made to solve this Buttner and 
problem, from an economical standpoint, the Buttner and '^^V" ''■'y^''- 
Meyer dryer actually holds its own to-day against all comers, 
mainly from a practical point of view. 

The Buttner & Meyer furnace is based upon two principles, 
one of which is that the hot gases from the center, of combustion 



182 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



which will evaporate the water of the cossettes, should be at the 
highest possible temperature in order to work economically; the 
second is that the cossettes cannot move in an opposite direction 
to the gases, but, on the contrary, they should circulate with 
them until they leave the apparatus. The second principle is a 
natural outcome of the first, as it is evident that gases at the 

Fig. 19. 




Side View of Sttttner-Meyer Dryer. 

temperature at which they enter the apparatus (not less than 
400° to 750° C. — at first it was argued if the temperature was 
above 500° C, the cossettes would be burned), would imme- 
diately ignite if they were circulating in an opposite direction. 
As to the moist cossettes that come in contact with these hot 
ases, their temperature can never attain 100° C. so long as they 



BUTTNER AND MEYEE, DRYER, 



183 



retain moisture, as all the heat that the gases communicate 
to them serves in the transformation of this water into steam. 

Upon general principles, the Buttner & Meyer dryer consists 
of a large brick frame-work, upon the upper part of which is a 
furnace, surrounded by a dome ; in it the hydro-carbonated 
gases complete their combinations and are finally consumed, 

Fig. 20. 




JEnd View of Buttner & Meyer Dryer. 

that is to say they are transformed into carbonic acid in conse- 
quence of their combination with air with which they come into 
contact. This frees these gases from the particles of soot that 
would contaminate the cossettes being dried, and which would 
consequently give them an unpleasant flavor. The bottom of 
the dome in question is divided in two by a small brick parti- 



184 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

tion, on the one side of which are collected the ash, etc., that 
have been carried forward by the circulating gases. The suction 
of the air necessary is accomplished by the so-called exhauster, 
and may be regulated as the occasion may demand. When this 
is used for the burning of peat or other poor fuel, such products 
are first thrown upon a special grating, Avhere they are carbon- 
ized and fall gradually from layer to layer until completely 
consumed. On the lower and upper portion of the dome the 
gases are carried forward at the same time as the cossettes into 
the dryer proj^er, which consists of three semi-cylindrical layers, 
one over the other, having each a shaft that forces the spiral 
agitators to revolve through the intervention of special conical 
gearing placed outside the dryer. These axes revolve at a 
velocity of 26 revolutions per minute, the cossettes are intro- 
duced into the dryer by an endless band carrier and spiral, and 
are deposited above the chamber of the drier. This residuum 
passes through the apparatus, comes in contact with the hot 
gases and is rapidly dried. As we have already described above, 
there is no apprehension of the cossettes being carbonized, as 
the evaporation of the water they contain is not sufficiently 
rapid to prevent their reaching a temperature of 100° C. , and 
this is a very essential condition, as above that temperature 
Temperature of the albuminoids of the cossettes would be rendered very much 
cossettes being less digestible. According to the experiments of Kohler the 
dried. temperature of the cossettes in this dryer never reaches even 90° 
C. , as in his laboratory oven experiments, in which the drying 
was done at 90° C. , the dried product had a coefficient of 
digestibility less than that of the dried cossettes obtained in the 
Buttner and Meyer furnace. 

The agitating arms of the spirals are not "combined as one 
might suppose, viz., so as to push the cossettes forward and 
force them out at the end of the apparatus. They are, on the 
contrary, arranged so as to compel them to circulate in the 
opposite direction from which they entered, but owing to a cur- 
rent of hot air they become dryer. The lighter portions are 
carried down to the second division, where the spiral arm 
arrangement raises them and brings them again in contact with 
the hot air until the moment that they are carried to the lower 



TEMPERATURE OF COSSETTES BEING DRIED. 185 

division of the apparatus. They are constantly brought in con- 
tact with the hot gases, and do not reach the bottom of the 
dryer until they have become sufficiently light to be carried for- 
ward by the circulating gases. 

From what has just been said it becomes evident that the 
cossettes are raised continuously by the revolving agitators until 
a period when the hot gases will render them sufficiently light 
to be carried a little farther each time until they reach the ex- 
terior of the upper trough, from which they fall to the compart- 
ment directly beneath, always coming in contact with the circu- 
lating hot gases. They pass through the three divisions of the 
apparatus and finally fall into the cylindrical trough at the 
bottom, in which is a revolving spiral that forces the dried resi- 
duum to the exterior of the apparatus. As the circulating gases 
always carry a considerable amount of cossettes in suspension, 
this would mean an ultimate loss; so before leaving the dryer 
the gases are forced into a "cyclone" where the particles in 
suspension are deposited, and where they are collected to be 
subsequently added to the dried cossettes. A special chimney 
is connected with the dome of the drj-er and serves for starting 
the fire. As soon as this cupola is sufficiently hot, and after 
the cossettes enter and the exhauster is working, the chimney is 
closed. As the occasion may demand, this chimne}' allows the 
escape of the gases of combustion at a time when the supply of 
fresh cossettes is less than the practical efficiency of the appa- 
ratus, due for example to a stoppage in the general working of 
the factory from which the cossettes are obtained. The cossettes 
would be burned if some means were not adopted to meet this 
emergency. Furthermore, it allows, upon occasion, an entrance 
into the furnace. It permits air to circulate in the dryer when 
necessary, by which means the gases may be cooled. The 
apparatus is regulated in such a way that the cossettes, on leav- 
ing the dryer, are sufficiently desiccated and the gases are suffi- 
ciently cool to attain their saturation point, without, however, 
being cooled enough to allow the water to condense. By 
approaching as nearh^ as possible this point of condensation, 
one realizes the economical working of the dryer. 

According to Buttner and Meyer the final temperature in 



186 FEEDING WITH SUGAK. BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

their dryer should be 110° C, which is sufficient to prevent the 
condensation of water without in any way destroying the ulti- 
mate value of the dried cossettes. By lengthening the time 
that the cossettes remain in the dryer one may obtain any de- 
Complete drying gree of dryness that the occasion may call for. It would be 
unnecessary, possible to evaporate their water completely. However, this 
would be unnecessary, as the dry residuum would re-absorb 12 
per cent, to 15 per cent, of m.oisture when coming in contact 
with the air. Buttner and Meyer do not go beyond a limit of 
88 per cent, of dry matter, which corresponds with that of hay 
and other dry forage. 

In order to regulate the temperature of the furnace and the 
exit of the gases, special appliances are arranged on the dryer 
permitting the air to enter in such quantities as circumstances 
may demand. 
Regulating the It is to be noticed that the amount of cossettes entering a 
dryer. furnace is an important factor as regards the final temperature 
of the gases. The smaller the volume of cossettes in the dryer 
the greater the tendency of the temperature to rise. This may 
be readily ex]:»lained, as then a large portion of the caloric is 
not utilized for the evaporation of the water of the cossettes. 
The working of the dryer and the suction of the air should be 
regulated so as to correspond with the entrance of the cossettes 
into the apparatus. It is essential in this dryer that the suction 
of air should be regulated so as to correspond to the volume of 
cossettes being dried; excess would always mean a fall of tem- 
perature. The variations of temperature are very slight in the 
Buttner and Meyer furnace owing to the considerable mass of 
masonry of which the dryer consists,, which within itself consti- 
tutes a sort of a heat regulator. The initial and final temper- 
ature of the gases are two facts that are most important to watch. 
The first can oscillate within the limit from 200° to 300°, and 
have, evidently, an enormous importance. An excessively low 
temperature would mean that too much air had been mixed 
with the hot gases, and there is no question but that it is 
far better to use directly the caloric of the fuel to evaporate 
water than to re-heat the air; the higher the initial temperature 
the greater will be the economical working of the dryer. 



OBJECTIONABLE FEATURE OF DRYERS. 187 

Fettback has analyzed the gases of this dryer in order to make 
sure that they are supersaturated with moisture. By observing 
the temperature shown on the moistened thermometer and that 
of the dry thermometer, and also the pressure indicated on a 
barometer, it becomes possible to ascertain the relative hygro- 
static condition of these gases. Specially arranged diagrams 
showed the influence of the volume of the cossettes to be dried 
upon the final temperature of the gases and also their relative 
moisture. 

When there are defects in the dryer they may be noticed by 
a fall of temperature of the gases and their comparative moist- 
ure. The regulating of the dryer may, to a certain extent, be 
done by ascertaining its practical working efficiency, allowing for 
the utilization of the caloric of the fuel. 

We give herewith the formula proposed by Rydlewski for the Practical work- 
calculation of the efficiency of a cossette dryer: We may sup- ing of dryer, 
pose that Q is the weight of the fresh cossettes, and q the weight 
of the dried cossettes, t the temperature in degrees Centigrade of ■ 
the moist cossettes, and p the weight of the coal, while c is the 
number of calories liberated by the combustion of one kilo, of 
coal. 

Caloric utihzed C = [Q - q] [637 — t] . 
Caloric furnished C ^ cp. 

Practical efficiency x per cent. = -^^ . 

\j 

The application of this formula has given for the Buttner and Objectionable 
Meyer dryer, as well as for the Petr}^ and Hecking apparatus, feature of 
an efficiency of 82.04 per cent. This formula enables one to i^)^^^- 
ascertain within what limit it is possible to introduce moist cos- 
settes into the dryer at a variable temperature, and to what ex- 
tent temperature has an influence on the efficiency of the dryer. 
A rise of temperature of 30° to 35° C. means certainly an econ- 
omy of 5 per cent, in fuel. 

Some objections have been made to the Buttner and Meyer 
dryer, also to the Mackensen appliance, that there follows an 
important loss of dry substances carried forward by the hot 
gases. Some authorities have declared that this loss is 25 per 
cent, to 30 per cent., and even 40 per cent. This, without 



188 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

doubt, is a great exaggeration. RydIe^Yski has shown beyond 
cavil that when the dryer is conducted as it should be there is 
not a loss greater than 2.45 per cent, of dry substances, or 0.16 
per cent, calculated upon the basis of the weight of the entire 
beet; this is especiall}^ true in the Buttner and Meyer dryer. 

On the other hand, Kohler declares that in his investigations 
the losses of dry substances are 0.1 per cent, of the beets worked, 
and 1.7 per cent, of the total dry substances contained in the 
desiccated cossettes. 

The Buttner and Meyer dryer has had many applications in 
Germany and in France, and our attention has been called to 
data obtained at a factory at Fisme (France). The plant has 
been worked with great satisfaction for several years, all tem- 
peratures being regulated automatically. Besides the regular 
plant there is also a steam engine. At first coke was the only 
combustible used, but at present any kind of fuel answers the 
purpose. 

According to Brunehaut the analysis of fresh and dried pulp 
at Fisme was as follows: 

Feesh Cossettes. Dried Cossettes. 

Water 88.40. Water 10.36. 

Dry substances . • • • 11.60. Dry substances 89.64. 

The efficiency of the dryer is about 900 lbs. dried cossettes 
per hour, and the consumption of fuel (coal) about 800 lbs. 

If we admit 900 lbs. per hour, this represents about 21,600 
lbs. per diem, and this amount contains 19,273 lbs. dry sub- 
stances, corresponding in fresh pulp to 166,100 lbs. The 
amount of water evaporated is correspondingly 
166,100 — 21,600 = 144,500 lbs. 

The consumption of coal is 19,200 lbs., consequently the fuel 
consumption per lb. of water evaporated is about 8 lbs. The 
cost of the dried cossettes including sinking fund for money in- 
vested and all other items was about $16.00 per ton, or 72 cts. 
per 100 lbs. This is certainly in excess of what it should be 
and may be due to fuel used. 
Cost of plant. Opinions vary — some sa}^ to work 20,000 tons of beets the 
plant would cost at least $20,000. 



STEAM DRYING, 189 

Cost or Plant in Eelatiox to its Capacity. 

F 



Cost of installation .... 
Beets worked per diem. 



A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


$23,000 
300 


$28,000 
300 


$18,000 
200 


$15,000 
150 


$24,000 
350 



$32,000 
300 



For the United States a plant preparing ] 00 tons of resid- 
uum per diem would cost at least $45,000. On the other 
hand the average cost for drying cossettes, in eight German 
factories, it not more than 17.4 pfennig per 100 kilos of pressed 
cossettes, notwithstanding the fact that among these factories 
there was one that worked very poorly during the period of 
observation. In certain exceptional cases this cost has not been 
more than 14 pfennig. 

The steam drying method for the com.plete desiccation of Steam drying, 
cossettes is said to be a new departure, and has met with great 
success in Austria. The plant recently built is for a 900-ton 
factor}^, and cost about $80,000 in that country. All calcula- 
tions made, it is estimated that even if the dried cossettes sell 
for $2 a ton the daily profits will be $200. The daily con- 
sumption of coal is about 100 pounds per ton of beets handled 
at the factory. In this steam method there is no danger of the 
residuum being burned by overheating, as is frequently the case 
by other modes of drying. It is claimed that nearly all the dry 
substances contained in the original beet are to be found in the 
final dried residuum (?), averaging 90 per cent, dry substances. 
The residuum cossettes, after being pressed in a Klusemann or 
Bergreen press are carried by a moving apron and emptied into 
a trough with revolving horizontal agitators, and heated with 
exhaust steam circulating in a jacket. The residuum is kept 
for a considerable time at a temperature of 40 to 45° C, and is 
subsequently run into special presses very much of the same 
design as Klusemann. To each press there is attached an 
apparatus not unlike a meat chopper in its general construction, 
and after this subdivision of the fibre, the residuum is carried 
by an endless screw to the dryers, each of which is about 5 feet 



190 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Fig. 21. 



wide, 18 feet long and 15 feet high. In its interior are four 
horizontal troughs, placed one over the other, each of which has 

a steam jacket. In each trough is a 
rotating, horizontal, tubular cluster, 
G, Ihrough which steam circulates, 
consequently the hashed cossettes are 
heated in the troughs and also heated 
during their rotating motion. The 
product being dried falls successively 
from one trough to another and circu- 
lates the entire length of each. When 
the dried cossettes finally leave the 
apparatus, another rotating device, in 
which there is no air, helps the empty- 
ing. The moist air from the oven is 
removed with a ventilator, the air pass- 
ing through an arrester which retains 
all the solid particles in suspension. 
The entire motive power of the dryer 
is transmitted by gearing outside of 
the dryer. The dryer proper is metal; 
the exterior covering, however, is wood. 
The dried residuum leaves the dryer 
at 30° C. (8G° F.). In different parts 
of the dryer the maximum temperature 
It is maintained that the following trans- 
One hundred pounds of residuum pulp 




End View and Section of 
Steam Dryer, 



is 110° C. (230° F.). 
formations take place: 
with 10 per cent, dry matter may be considered to have been 
obtained from 200 pounds of beets, giving 67 pounds cossettes, 
with 15 per cent, dry matter and only 11 pounds of dried 
product containing 90 per cent, of dry substances. German 
experience would appear to show that there was needed for the 
drying 80 pounds of coal per 100 pounds of dried cossettes, 
without allowance being made for the motive power. Calcu- 
lated upon a basis of one ton of beets, this means that 120 
pounds dried product demand 110 pounds coal. For the pro- 
duction of 10 tons of dried cossettes in 24 hours, there is needed 
a force of 50 H.P. It must not be forgotten that in the ques- 



APPEARANCE OP THE DRIED RESIDUUM. 



191 



tion of fuel consumption, the drying is done during the regular 
sugar campaign, and the steam used is simply the exhaust from 
the various pieces of apparatus of the factory. The daily 
capacity of the dryer may be increased by adding an oven to the 
series. It is claimed that with this apparatus, without any 
additional device, it is possible to use the dryers for mixing dried 
cossettes with residuum molasses. This device is so simple in 
its construction that a drawing was considered unnecessary to 
convey to the reader the general construction of the dryers. 

The Thiesen dryer consists of a large vertical cylinder in Thiesen dryer, 
which are placed alternately funnels attached to the sides, and 
a sort of plate or dish fixed to the axis of the cylinder. 
Special scrapers are placed on the axis of the dryer, which 
brush the funnels and force the substance being dried to fall 
upon the plates, etc. The substance to be dried enters at the top 
and leaves at the bottom of dryer. The Heckraann dryer consists 
of a large horizontal cylinder closed by a suitable cover with 
glasses for observation — the progress of the drying can thus be 
closely watched. In the interior is a series of platforms or shelves, 
having at their lower portion pipes for heating, which may be 
lengthened or shortened, as the occasion may demand. Piping on 
top of the cylinder makes a connection Avith the vacuum pump. 

The dried cossettes consist of fragments, about one inch in Composition and 
length, and light green in color. To the touch they are rather aPP^arance of the 
resistant and readily break between the fingers, especially when ^"^^ residuum, 
they have been dried too much. Their average composition 
is as follows: 

Average Composition of Dried Cossettes. 



Substances. 



Water 

Nitrogenous 
substances . • • 

Fatty substances 

Non-nitrogen- 
ous substances 

Fibre 

Ash 

Sand 



Analysis of Konig. 



15.57 per cent. 

7.63 
1.09 

49.65 
18.22 



4.19 
3.65 



f 0.398 oxid of 

|of which^. P«^«™- • 
J 0.21 phosphoric 

[ acid. 



Analysis of Pott. 



10.0 per cent. 

7.5 " 
1.0 " 

58.4 " 

17.1 " 

6.0 " 



192 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



At one time it was admitted that if the percentage of nitrogen 
in fresh cossettes is one, that of the dried product is 8.16. 
Cossettes com- The composition of the dried residuum compares favorably 
pared with hay. ^^iih meadow hay. 

Comparative Analyses of Dried Cossettes and Hay. 



Substances. 



Water 

Nitrogenous substances 

Fatty substances 

Fibre 

Ash 

Nitrogen-free extract • • 



Dried cossettes. 


Hay. 


11.00 


14.3 


7.87 


9.7 


1.40 


2.5 


20.00 


26.3 


7.14 


6.2 


51.93 


41.0 



According to Pott the minimum and maximum variations in 
the composition of the product are as follows: Dried substances 
84,2 to 94.7, nitrogenous substances 6.3 to 8.5, fatty substances 
0.4 to 1.5, cellulose 13.5 to 20.7 

The introduction and rapidly increasing popularity of desic- 
cated cossettes may be explained by the important nutritive 
losses that cossettes undergo during siloing, which is evidently 
to their disadvantage. 

In certain cases sugar factories lose through neglect 20 per 
cent, of their cossettes [this in Europe is excessive] ; this fact 
alone allows any one to approximate the advantages that will 
necessarily be derived from cossette drying. The saving thus 
effected, provided the product is utilized, constitutes an impor- 
tant margin towards the cost of the drying operation. Upon 
general principles dry forage of this kind has considerably 
increased in popularity of late owing to its health}^ appearance, 
Comparison be- and also to its excessive digestibility, Maercker and Morgen 
tween siloed and ^gglg^je that no product of fermentation is more digestible and 
dried cossettes. ^^^^.g nourishing from any standpoint than are the fresh sub- 
stances from which the dried residuum has been obtained. It 
is much to be regretted that no appliance has so far been devised 



COMPARISON BETWEEN SII.OED AND DRIED COSSETTES. 193 

that allows one to compute the digestibility of the non-nitro- 
genous extracted substances, as can be done with the nitro- 
genous elements by means of the Stutzer method. 

It is declared that when non-nitrogenous extractible and 
digestible substances are mixed with the indigestible and ex- 
posed to the action of micro-organisms, a fermentation or putre- 
faction follows. The most soluble and most easily digested sub- 
stances are the first to ferment and undergo putrefaction, and it 
is precisely in these compounds that the greatest losses occur. 
The soured residuums are less digestible than the fresh or than 
the dried cossettes, provided the desiccation has been effected 
at a sufficiently low temperature to prevent the albuminoids 
from becoming insoluble. As fermentation is a phenomenon 
that removes from the forage a certain amount of fuel, which 
means a reduction in its caloric power, it results in a smaller 
nutritive equivalent. Among the active elements of this fer- 
mentation may be mentioned acetic or butyric acid, which has, 
as determined by Weiske, a nutritive equivalent which is very 
small. They even occasion a deci'eased assimilation of nitrogen. 
However, it has been noticed that the lactic acid causes a slight 
increase in the amount of albuminoids deposited in the organ- 
ism. In all cases these acids have a nutritive equivalent less 
than carbohydrates, from which they are derived, and it is easy 
to see that the cattle breeder loses very considerably from this 
point of view if one considers that acids form more than 20 per 
cent, of the dry substances of the siloed cossettes. Morgen, 
how^ever, finds 17.98 per cent, of acids, and the maximum 
that he was ever able to discover was 28.98 per cent., calculated 
on a basis of lactic acid. It is important to add to this the fact 
that a portion of the albuminoids is transformed into amides, of 
which the nutritive equivalent is less, and can, according to 
Kiihn, only be compared with carbohydrates in view of their 
economizing the albumen consumption in the organism. 
Finally, a portion of the albuminoids, according to Maercker 
and Meyer, is completely destroyed during fermentation; they 
are the most easily digested and they are tbe first, as previously 
stated, to disappear, as they are more actively influenced by the 
micro-organisms and consequently more readily fermented. 
13 



194 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

This explains the decrease in the digestibility of the albumin- 
oids contained in siloed cossettes, which falls to 73 per cent., 
while the coefficient of digestibility is, for dried cossettes, 86.06 
per cent. The importance, therefore, of the dr}^ cossettes is 
manifest, not only for the sugar factories, where as we have 
before explained they reach enormous proportions, but also for 
the breeder. 
Advantages of It is not only from this standpoint that there are advantages 
dried cossettes ^q j^g derived from this dried forage. If one examines the in- 
fluence upon the organism of the large volume of water con- 
tained in the soured cossettes, the subject may be classified as 
follows: First, the cold water they contain has to be re-heated 
to the temperature of the body; second, the evaporation of 
water through the pores of the skin and lungs increases consid- 
erably, which demands a largely increased consumption of cal- 
oric; third, the amount of blood formed is increased, and 
with it there follows a considerable increase of wear and tear on 
the organism; and fourth, the consumption of albuminoids 
is increased, for the simple reason that an increased absorption 
of water is always followed by such burning. 
Heat needed to Maercker and Morgen have demonstrated for the first of these 
evapora e wa er gi^^^gg ^]^^^ jf q^q divides equally between ten sheep a ration of 
17.72 kilos, of cossettes per diem, and that if the temperature 
of these cossettes is 5° to 10° C, there would be required, to 
eliminate the water they contain, a temperature of the body of 
37.5° C. This would demand 488 to 576 calories, which in 
other words means the heat liberated by 125 gr. to 150 gr. of 
starch, and they declare that, while this quantity may appear 
of very slight importance, when considered from the point of 
view of daily consumption, it becomes very significant after a 
long period. Furthermore, a greater absorption of water is 
always followed by increased excretion of the body in general, 
either through the skin or the lungs, through which a large 
quantity of water passes, and to transform it into a vapory con- 
dition demands a certain amount of caloric, which necessarily 
must be taken from the food consumed. 

If one takes as a basis for his argument the experiments on 
respiration by Henneberg and Maercker, the conclusion would 



HEAT NEEDED TO EVAPORATE WATER DRUNK. 195 

be that the increase of water to be evaporated is 40 per cent, of 
the additional water consumed. But Henneberg has recently 
demonstrated that this amount is excessive, and declares that of 
the water drunk not more than 7 to 17 per cent, is to be elim- 
inated through perspiration, etc. 

Vogel made a series of experiments with sheep, and concluded 
from one of these investigations that the average of evaporation 
was 30.78 per cent, of water absorbed. Another experiment 
gave 16.36 per cent., or an average for the two experiments of 
23.57 per cent. But the ration under consideration contained 
only 0.6 kilo of starch. This quantity is lost as a forage as it 
has no equivalent as work. An increase in the quantity of 
blood without doubt results, but it remains to be proved 
whether the increase in question means additional work. 

According to Volkmann -^l^ only of the force developed by 
the heart is used, properly speaking, for the blood; the re- 
mainder is utilized to overcome the resistance of friction in the 
arterial and venous circulation. It remains to be demonstrated 
whether this resistance is increased in consequence of a greater 
quantity of blood put into circulation, or, on the contrary, is 
diminished, owing to the greater fluidity of the blood. Up to 
what point can these two contradictory elements be considered as 
compensating one for the other ? Maercker appears to lean to- 
wards the theory of an increase in the necessary force at the time 
of the circulation under consideration. As for the consumption 
of albuminoids, it is, according to Mares, more and more pro- 
nounced when the previous ration was deficient in these ele- 
ments. This would be due to a large consumption of water, 
for the simple reason that it destroys and decomposes the living 
substances of the protoplasm. If this absorption of water is of 
daily occurrence the weight of the animal fed may decline in a 
very marked degree. In order to overcome this decomposition 
and to reconstruct or build up the protoplasm, it becomes 
urgent to feed to animals elements richer in albumen than 
would otherwise have been necessary, as neither the fatty sub- 
stances nor the carbohydrates can meet the demand. 

Weisbeck has fattened cattle and has obtained the following- 
results, which show the influence of the excessive water 
absorbed : 



196 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Ration of 40 kilos soured cossettes containing 35.85 kilos 
water and 4.15 kilos dry substances, increase of weight per diem 
1.58 kilos. 

Ration of 50 kilos soured cossettes containing 44.53 kilos 
water and 5.47 kilos dry substances, increase of weight per 
diem 1.23 kilos. 

Henneberg has made similar experiments with milch cows, 
and has also come to the conclusion that there follows a de- 
crease in the weight, with a slight increase, however, in the 
quantity of milk obtained, as shown herewith : 

Influence of Watee in Ration on Milk and Weight of Cows. 



Varying water content of ration. 

Ration containing 19.71 kilos water 
Ration containing 28.50 kilos water 
Ration containing 37.12 kilos water 



Milk per diem. 



13.36 kilos. 
13.46 " 
14.15 " 



Increase of weight 
per diem. 



0.586 kilo. 
0.097 " 
*0.006 " 



* Decrease. 



Dried cossettes If it is true in agriculture that it is not desirable to throw 
more hygienic away all that has an unpleasant smell, it is, on the other hand, 
tlian tlie siloed, desirable to be able to transform a forage that has a bad odor, 
such as soured cossettes, into an odorless forage, such as dried 
cossettes. Outside of the direct disagreeable features of siloed 
cossettes there follows an indirect unpleasantness. Some authors 
claim that the products of a dairy using soured cossettes have a 
slight smell and always retain it, and their conservation is 
also rendered more difficult. It does not necessarily follow 
that these substances are communicated directly to the said pro- 
duct by the passage through the organism, but the micro-organ- 
isms with which the forage is supercharged, float in the air of the 
stables, and consequently fall into the milk. Or, furthermore, 
they may reach the milk from the hands of those employed in 
doing the dairy work, who are, unfortunately, not over careful 
in the use of antiseptics. These micro-organisms give a slight 



MINERAL SUBSTANCES IN THE DRIED COSSETTES. 197 

disagreeable taste to butter and milk products. It is moreover 
well to add that soured cossettes may in certain cases develop 
disease, such as epizootic and catarrh of the stomach and in- 
testines. 

It is furthermore to be regretted that siloed cossettes are fre- 
quently handled with great carelessness. Maercker and Meyer 
mention one case where the cossettes remained in silos in con- 
tact with dead animals and became infected with disease. 
Under such conditions siloed cossettes naturally cannot be con- 
sidered a desirable forage, as such products are not only detri- 
mental to the health of the animals fed, but also to their 
descendants. 

Among the indirect advantages possessed by dried cossettes is Dried cossettes 
the fact that the work of oxen is lessened in the fall of the year, ""'''f ''f^dily 
The weight of dry cossettes is ^ of that of pressed, fresh or '"'"'''^'' *''^" 
soured cossettes. In most instances the beet wagons may return ^ . 
empty, and in this way one avoids the loss of time occasioned 
by the long period of waiting in the yards of the factories for 
the return loads of fresh cossettes. Again it may be pointed 
out that these long waits are hurtful to the general health of 
the animals. Thus the economy obtained by the use of dried 
cossettes in the matter of the transportation from the factories 
to the silos and then to the stable is considerable. Heine 
states that this cost is 10 pfennigs per 100 kilos for a distance 
of three kilometres. The carriage for longer distances by rail- 
road is often greater. Under all circumstances there necessarily 
follows a considerably economy in the amount of wear and tear 
that the draft-animals are called upon to undergo. 

It is to be noticed that the cossettes contain considerable Mineral sub- 
mineral substances. This is one of the objections to cossette stances in the 
drying by means of direct fire. The ash carried forward by the "* """^^^ ^^' 
circulating hot gases adheres to the cossettes that are yet moist. 
It would be possible to decrease this action by forcing the gases 
through metallic gauze with a very close mesh, which would re- 
tain the suspended cinders. If, for the purpose of drying, one 
uses coke on the grate, and this coke contains sulphur, the 
resulting product will necessarily have a bad odor when moist- 
ened. While this may not have any complicated or objection- 



198 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

able influence "when considered from a hygienic standpoint, the 
cattle to which it is fed will frequently refuse it. The dried 
cossettes, furthermore, have the advantage over the soured pro- 
duct of facilitating the compounding of a ration, for the simple 
reason that its composition is almost constant, whereas soured 
cossettes leave much to be desired on this point. 
Conservation of The dried cossettes have, as regards their keeping powers, a 
dried cossettes. gj-eat advantage over the siloed product. They require, how^- 
ever, a covered building protecting them against rain, etc., for 
their preservation and storage. It is not necessary to bestow 
more care upon them than is given to any other dry forage. 
Helbrigel placed cossettes in a moist environment for three 
months, and the residuum did not absorb more than 15 per 
cent, of moisture, showing that it has little hygroscopic 
power. 
Change during Other experiments have been made by placing the dried cos- 
l(eeping. settes in a very damp cellar for six months, when they be- 
came moist and mildewed. These experiments, however, were 
made under exceptional conditions, which are not found in 
practice. 

Cossettes that are dried at a low temperature w-ould, however, 
absorb a little more water, but when they are placed in a moist 
storehouse at a low temperature they will take up 20 per cent, 
w^ater and remain in this condition for a long period of months. 
- They will not mildew any more than does hay during its keep- 
ing. Under normal conditions it has been noticed that when 
giving this dried residuum the usual care the loss of dry sub- 
stances, after months of keeping, is less than it would be with 
most of the standard fodders, and even less than it is with oil 
cake. 

As is the case with all dry fodders, the cossettes increase in 
weight during the first year of their keeping, after which there 
follows a slight loss of dry substances. The increase is found 
mainly in the cellulose, the nitrogenous substances and the 
ash, W'hile the gaseous extracts and fatty substances diminish. 
' As a general thing the mass, after being kept some time, be- 
comes possessed of a certain butyric odor, w^hich is the out- 
come of the gradual oxidation of the carbohydrates and the fatty 



DIGESTIBILITY OF COSSETTES. 



199 



constituents, which fact in itself explains the decrease in their 
percentage. As for the albuminoids, they undergo no change 
as regards their quantity, but their quality shghtly diminishes, 
as is the case with all other substances contained in fodders in 
general. A cubic metre of the dried residuum weighs 300 kilos. 
It occupies, consequently, one-half the volume of either the 
fresh or the siloed cossettes. 

Morgen, in 1888, published a series of investigations on the 
digestibility of the nitrogenous substances contained in fresh, 
soured and dried cossettes, which demonstrated that the assimil- 
ability of their constituents was about the same for each form of 
cossette. From the data he then obtained he concluded that 
the albuminoids of siloed cossettes could not be considered less 
digestible than those of the fresh or dried residuum. They ap- 
peared, on the contrary, to be possessed of considerable advan- 
tages in this respect, which led to the conclusion that if there is 
a loss of albuminoids in a silo, the value of soured cossettes as 
a forage was not lessened; on the contrary, their digestibility 
had increased. These experiments led to the following results: 

Eelative Digestibility of Fresh, Dried and Siloed Cossettes. 



Various fodders. 


Digestible raw 
protein. 


Digestible 
albuminoids. 




Per cent. 
76.3 

79.7 

83.2 


Per cent. 
76.3 

79.7 

81.7 




Siloed or sour cossettes 



Digestibility 
of cossettes. 



The difference in the analysis, between the soured cossettes 
and the other two products, appears to be caused by the excess 
of nitrogenous substances that are not necessarily albuminoids 
and which are indicated as raw protein. Morgen declares that 
these data are entirely too favorable to the soured cossettes. He 
finds that these results are in contradiction of what has as yet 
been obtained in practice and asserts that this is due mainly to 
the fact that the dried, fresh and soured cossettes, when exam- 



200 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ined had not the same common source, that is they were not 
from the same beets. 

Morgen undertook another series of investigations with 
Maercker, taking this point in consideration, and they obtained, 
for an average of their experiments, a coefficient of digestibility of 
86.75 for the dried cossettes, and 73.02 per cent, for the soured 
cossettes, Avhich means a difference of 13.73 per cent, in favor 
of the dried residuum. 

The keeping of cossettes reduces in a very perceptible degree 
their nutritive value. The dry substance of dried cossettes con- 
tains 9.02 of protein, or ^i^^A^^ =7.93 per cent, of digest- 
ible protein, while the siloed cossettes with their 10.61 per cent. 

, . . ^, , 1 , 4 • 1 10-61 X 73.02 
of protein m the dry substance contain only -— =: 

7.75 per cent, of protein that may be assimilated. 

The coefficient of digestibility of protein of different forages 
was established by the agronomic station at Halle sur Saale, 
Germany. The conclusion to be drawn from this data is that 
dried cossettes far excel all forages when considered from a nutri- 
tive standpoint. In Germany this forage is estimated as having 
considerable money value owing to this nutritive quality, and 
also for the reason that cattle fed upon it appear to keep in a 
very healthy condition. The only element that can reduce the 
digestibility of the product is heat. 

Morgen determined an average from three exj^eriments upon 
the digestibility of nitrogen, and showed that it ran from 
76.3 per cent, to 79.1 per cent, with fresh cossettes dried at a 
temperature of from- 75 to 85° C. Another experiment, made 
with dried cossettes. at 75 to 85° C, in which the coefficient of 
assimilation of nitrogen was 78.8, gave on heating to 125° to 
130° C, a lowering of the digestibility to 65.8 per cent., or a 
decrease of 13 per cent. These figures show the importance of 
carefully watching the dryer, so as to prevent the temperature 
of the product from rising above 100° C. 
Precaations in Dry cossettes constitute a nutrient for animals of which they 
feeding. are ver}^ fond, and it is important to take certain precautionary 
measures to prevent cattle from eating it to excess. Sheep, for 



PRECAUTIONS IN FEEDING. 201 

example, will eat it with great avidity if they are allowed to do 
so. They eat entirely too much of this dried product and then 
take water into the stomach, which is followed by an abnormal 
swelling. Under these circumstances it stands to reason that 
serious complications will follow. It frequently happens that 
sheep are strangled by swallowing this desiccated residuum too 
rapidly. It is, however, easy to avoid such accidents by merely 
mixing the cossettes with about 40 per cent, of water and allow- 
ing the product to swell. Ritter mixes only 16 per cent, water. 
Some recommend that the cossettes be well ground into a 
powder. By such precautions the product is swallowed with 
ease and eaten with relish. However, when first fed the dried 
product may be refused, which is probably caused by the curious 
texture of the forage that may be unpleasant to the eye, or for 
other reasons; however, such cases are the exception. After 
several days the animals become accustomed to the cossettes 
and will eat all placed at their disposal. Up to the present 
time not a single case has been recorded where an animal has 
continuously declined to eat this dried residuum. 

Pfeiffer and Lehmann declare that when dried cossettes are 
fed to an excess, they bring about troubles in the intestinal 
canal, which, as we may readily suppose, diminishes very 
materially the coefficiency of digestibility of the fatty sub- 
stances; and notwithstanding the fact that animals being fed 
will increase in weight, there is always danger of considerable 
loss of nutritive substances in the droppings during over- feeding. 

It must be understood that it is not imperative to mix the 
cossettes with water, as sheep will eat them in a dry state; how- 
ever, the mixing of water as previously explained is an advan- 
tage. It allows the cossettes to be more readily combined with 
other forages, for, as previously pointed out, the dried cossettes 
alone should not make up the ration. Notwithstanding its com- 
paratively small volume the product soon satisfies the animals' 
hunger, due possibly to the swelling of the beet cells in the 
presence of the fluids of the stomach, such as gastric juices, etc. 
The quantity of this feed to be given to animals differs with 
the object in view. According to Mercker and Morgen the 
amounts may be as follows: 



202 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

QuAXTiTY OF Dried Cossettes to be Fed. 



Cattle fed. 



Milch cows • . 

Steers 

Working oxen 

Sheep 

Young cattle . 



Normal 


rations. 


Maximum rations. 


Per diem. 




Per diem. 


3 


kilos. 




4.5 kilos. 


5 


(( 




7.0 " 


4 


(( 




6.0 " 


0.33 


a 




1.0 " 


1 


ii 




2.0 " 



Experiments in In some comparative experiments coming under our notice 
feeding different \}^qyq -were two lots of three bulls each, fed upon the product for 
in so cos- |j^jj,|-y days, also two lots of sheep of twenty-two head each were 
submitted to the same fattening process for forty-six days. The 
results obtained with either fresh or dried cossettes -were almost 
identical. Certain indications, however, w^ould lead one to sup- 
pose that if the experiments had extended over a longer period, 
the results would have been even more encouraging, and pos- 
sibly in favor of the dried product. Apparently one part of 
dried pulp is equal to eight of fresh pulp. Animals fed with 
both pulps gave milk of the following composition: 

Composition of Milk from Cows Fed on Fkesh or Dried Cossettes. 



Composition of milk. 



Density 

Butter fat 

Milk sugar 

Casein 

Mineral substances 

Total solids 

Water 



Fresh cossettes. 


Dried cossettes. 


1.04 


1.045 


3.90 


6.35 


3.08 


3.00 


7.97 


11.42 


1.10 


1.14 


16.05 


21.61 


83.95 


78.89 



EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 



203 



In other experiments, with 24 cows yielding between 14 and 
20 quarts per head and per diem, the feeding lasted 80 days, 
divided into four periods of 20 days. During the entire time of 
feeding, all the cows had regular rations of 12 lbs. hay, 2.2 flax 
flour, 2.2 cotton flour, 4.4 lbs. arachide flour, 6.6 lbs. barley 
bran, and 22 lbs. oat straw, to which was added during the first 
and fourth periods, 110 lbs. forage beets, during the second 
period, 17.6 lbs. dried cossettes, and 1.67 lbs. siloed pulps dur- 
ing the third period. 

. The nutritive value of these rations may be better understood 
by examining the table herewith: 

Comparative Nutritive Values of Eations Varied by Addition of 
Different Beet Products. 



Varied periods of 
feeding. ' 


Nitrogenous 
substances. 


Carbohydrates. 


Fatty 
substances. 


1st and 4th periods- 

2nd period 

3rd period 


3.15 kilos. 
3.11 " 
3.14 '' 


13.05 kilos. 
13.09 " 
13.07 " 


0.49 kilos. 
0.51 " 
0.49 " 



1 See paragraph above for rations fed. 

From which we may conclude that apparently there was very 
little difference in the theoretical nutritive value of the combina- 
tion used in each case. The practical results obtained showed that 
the quantity and composition of milk obtained was as follows: 

Comparative Analyses of Milk given when Different Beet 
Products were Fed. 



Varied periods of 


Weight of milk. 


Composition of milk. 


feeding. ^ 


Dry substances. 


Fatty substances. 




30.25 lbs. 
31.00 " 
31.60 " 
26.64 '• 


12.87 
12.88 
12.72 
12.72 


3 51 


2nd period 


3.60 
3 45 




3 45 







■ See paragraph above for rations fed. 



204 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



The forage beets produced inferior results to the dried or siloed 
cossette residuums. All facts considered, in these special ex- 
periments everything appeared favorable to the siloed product 
rather than the dried. 

According to Vibrans it is impossible to feed as much of the 
dried cossette product as animals can consume. Experience 
seems to show that it is unnecessary to feed ha}' to animals in 
conjunction with dried cossettes. 

Maercker and Morgen have published considerable data on 
their investigation relative to the feeding of this product to 
cattle and the profits that resulted. The first experiments were 
those made at Schlanstedt with five groups of oxen. The ration 
fed was as follows: 



Theee Experimental Eations Fed to Oxen (Maeeckeb & Morgen). 



Components of Ration. 



Cossettes 

Distillers' slops 

Hay 

Cereal balls 

Rice flour 

Lupine 

Total 

Dry substances 

Assimilated nitrogenous sub- 
stances (Stutzer) • • . • . • . . 

Assimilated non-nitrogenous 
substances • 



Series I. 



kilos. 



20 
30 
2.5 

3.08 
2.27 
1.35 



59.20 kilos. 

12.33 kilos. 
1.518 " 
6.95 " 



Series II. 



5.18 kilos.2 
30 
2.5 
2.84 
0.54 
1.47 



42.53 kilos. 

12.73 kilos. 
1.490 " 
6.93 " 



Series Til. 



6.93 kilos. 2 
30 

2,83 " 

0.54 " 

1.88 " 



42.18 kilos: 

12.32 kilos. 

1.471 " 

6.92 " 



■ Siloed. 



= Dried. 



The amount of rice flour was decreased in the second and 
third series and the hay ration was entirely done away with in 
the third series so as to give every possible advantage to the 
cossettes and determine within what limits they could take the 
place of this forage. The amount of lupine used was made to 
vary so as to keep the nitrogenous substance up to the desired 
standard. The results are shown in the table herewith: 



EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 205 

Kesults of Experimentai, Eations (Maeecker& Morgen). 



Items of Profit. 


Series I. 


Series II. 


Series III. 


Daily increase in weight 

Money value of the increase. 

Money value of droppings 

considered as a fertilizer. • 


1.195 kilos. 
118.5 pfennigs. 

38.8 " 


1.377 kilos. 
130.4 pfennigs. 

35.8 


1.438 kilos. 
134.0 pfennigs. 

35.1 


Total 


157.3 pfennigs. 
129.6 


166.2 pfennigs. 
123.8 


169.1 pfennigs. 
118.9 


Cost of daily ration 


Profit 


27.7 pfennigs. 


42.2 pfennigs. 


50.2 pfennigs. 





The advantage is, without doubt, in favor of dried cossettes. 
In other experiments made in Germany, six milch cows 
were fed during ten days with a ration consisting mainly of 
siloed cossettes, then ten days on a ration of dried cossettes, and 
finally ten days on soured cossettes. These experiments are of 
less practical value, as the animals fed were sick during the first 
and second periods of the investigation. Herewith are the le- 
sults of the experiments: 



Experimental Eations Fed to Six Cows. 



Components 
of ration. 


1st period. 


3rd period. 


Average of 

1st and 3rd 

periods. 


2nd period. 




25 kilos. 1 
30 

2.5 

2.0 

1.0 

1.29 " 

2.52 " 


25 kilos. 3 
30 

2.5 

2.0 

1.0 

1.28 

2.95 




4 51 kilos * 


Distillers' slops 

Hay 




30 '* 




2 5 " 


Cereal balls 




2 '• 




10 "■ 


Cotton seed flour 

Wheat bran 




1 58 " 




1 25 "• 






Total 


67.31 kilos.' 


67.73 kilos. 


67.52 kilos. 


45.84 kilos. 



' Siloed. 



2 Dried. 



= Soured. 



206 FEEDING WITB SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Experimental Kations Fed to Six Cows — Continued. 



Components 
of ration. 


1st period. 


3rd period. 


Average of 

1st and 3rd 

periods. 


2d period. 


Containing: 










Dry substances 


15.65 " 


16.28 


15.97 " 


15.84 " 


Digestible nitrogen- 










ous substances 


1.75 " 


1.86 " 


1.81 " 


1.80 " 


Digestible non-nitro- 










genous substances- 


8.41 


8.61 " 


8.51 " 


8.72 " 


Production of milk 










per head and diem. 


17.03 


17.97 


17.50 " 


17.84 " 


Fatty substances 


0.564 " 


0.558 " 


0.561 " 


0.547 " 


Increase in weight per 










head and diem 


0.068 " 


0.104 " 


0.086 " 


1.320 " 



Items of profit. 


Average of 1st and 
3rd periods. 


2nd period. 




175.0 pfennigs. 
38.0 


178.4 pfennigs. 
33.9 " 


Value of dropping considered as 






Total 


213.0 pfennigs. 
162.5 


212.3 pfennigs. 
155.7 " 








Profits 


50.5 pfennigs. 


56.6 pfennigs. 





The profits appear to be very much smaller than they should 
be, but it is important not to overlook the increase in weight of 
the animals fed. This increase, besides its intrinsic value, 
shows beyond cavil the healthy condition of the animals 
during the entire period of feeding, and this item is of an im- 
portance that cannot be estimated by figures. 

All facts considered, there can be no doubt that the dried re- 
siduum has a most favorable action on milch cows, which has 
also been demonstrated in the experiments of Kellner and 
Andra, who substituted 27.5 kilos of forage beets for 4.4 kilos 
of dried cossettes, which resulted in an increased milk produc- 
tion of 0.9 kilos per diem. 

Another interesting experiment we may mention is that made 



EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 



207 



at Hadmersleben, Germany, with two series of sheep fed for 101 
days with the following rations, for ten animals per diem: 

Experimental Rations Fed to Ten Sheep (Hadmeesleben, Germany). 



Components of ration. 



Cossettes 

Distillers' slops 

Pea straw 

Cereal balls 

Lupine 

Poppy oil cake 

Eice flour 

Water directly consumed 

Total 

Contents of ration: 
Dry substances 

Digestible nitrogenous substances • • • 
Digestible non-nitrogenous substances 
Total water consumed — 



1st series. 



29.4 
19.60 
2.38 
3.00 
1.47 
0.88 
1.79 
1.74 



kilos. ' 



60.66 kilos. 



13.91 
1.63 
7.26 

46.75 



2nd series. 



5.45 kilos. ^ 

19.60 " 

2.22 " 

3.00 " 

1.47 " 

1.14 " 

0.98 " 

9.12 " 



42.98 kilos. 

13.95 " 

1.67 " 

7.61 " 

29.03 " 



' Siloed. 



= Dried. 



Items of profit. 


1st series. 


2nd series. 


Money value of increased weight for 
ten animals fed 


90.2 pfennigs. 
18.5 - 

41.2 


107.2 pfennigs. 
21.3 

40.4 


Money value of droppings considered 




Total 


149.9 pfennigs. 
120.3 ■' 


168.9 pfennigs. 
118.9 








29.6 pfennigs. 


50.0 pfennigs. 



The last series of tables herewith shows the economy and the 
profits of this system of feeding. Notwithstanding the heavy 
percentage of water contained in the soured cossettes, sheep, in 
order to quench their thirst, were obliged to drink water placed 
at their disposal, which in all cases was ad libitum. They con- 
sumed an additional 1.8 kilo, per diem and per capita, which 
in other words means 61 per cent, more than the animals fed 



208 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

with dry cossettes. Under these circumstances it is evident 
that this enormous quantity of water must have an important 
influence on the digestibility of the albuminoids of the animals 
being fed, influencing to a considerable extent the deposit of fat 
and production of muscular tissues, which will consequently be 
decreased in considerable proportions. 

The experiments of Maercker and Morgen demonstrate that 
notwithstanding the low price at which dried cossettes may be 
produced, there follows an important increase in weight as com- 
pared with that realized with other feeding stuffs. In these dis- 
cussions the enormous comparative value of the resulting manure 
from the animals fed with dry cossettes is generally overlooked, 
and shows to what extent these substances have been digested 
by the animals under observation. The average of the experi- 
ments of Maercker and Morgen with sheep has shown that 
there is an increased profit of 3.76 marks per 100 kilos of dried 
cossettes; with oxen, 3.06 marks; with milch cows, 2.18 
marks. 

Maercker and Morgen show that the average profit from the 
use of dried cossettes is 21 pfennigs for large cattle fed, per in- 
dividual and per diem. It has a specially advantageous effect 
on working cattle, as they have in their intestinal tubes and 
stomachs a moderate amount only of nutritive substances, and 
experiments and observations have shown that the work they 
are able to accomplish is greater and their general health is 
better than are attained by animals fed with siloed and fresh 
cossettes resulting in full stomachs. 

Potato feeds, such as are used in Germany, for swine, may 
advantageously be put aside in favor of dried cossettes. Under 
all circumstances it is found desirable to submit the fodder to a 
preliminary heating with hot water. 
Beneficial Horses have excellent health when fed with this residuum, 
effects. Q^^ upon general principles all animals without distinction, as 
long experience has shown, derive great benefit from this dried 
cossette feeding. Many of the complications that have been 
noticed in feeding with forages in general have disappeared when 
this residuum has been used; for example a paralysis of a 
special kind in sheep. The milk of sheep appears to be better, 



ACTUAL ECONOMY. 



209 



and the lambs are in a more healthy condition than when fed 
with other forages. There is nothing surprising in this, for the 
simple reason that the milk is less subject to alteration even in 
the udder than when siloed cossettes are fed. 

When one substitutes dried cossettes for intensive fodders Actual economy, 
there follows a much greater profit, as is also shown by the ex- 
periments of Maercker and Morgen. In Germany, 100 kilos of 
oats cost 17.8 marks and contain 8 per cent, of digestible nitro- 
genous substances and 53.3 per cent, of digestible non-nitrogen- 
ous elements. These may be replaced by 88.4 kilos of dried 
cossettes and 7.6 kilos of cotton seed flour, costing 5.68 marks. 
The profit is consequently 12. 11 marks, or 68 per cent. Maercker 
and Morgen show that in numerous rations, where this intensive 
forage is used, it may be entire!}^ replaced by the dried cos- 
settes, to which other forages are added to make up the lacking 
elements. 

Eations fob Live Stock. 



Composition of 
ration. 



Digestible nitrogenous 
substances 

Digestible non-nitro- 
genous substances. . 

Hay 

Straw 

Dry cossettes 

Palm flour 

Pea straw •• 

Potato distillery wash. 

Wheat bran 

Cotton oil cake 

Peanut oil cake 

Poppy oil cake 

14 



Milch cows. 



Ration per 

head and 

diem. 



Kilos. 
1.25 

6.25 
2.50 
4.00 
3.00 



3.43 
1.14 



Kilos. 
1.75 

7.00 
2.50 
4.00 
3.00 
1.00 



3.14 
2.03 



Steers. 

Ration per 

head and 

diem. 



Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
5.00 



3.33 
1.50 



Kilos. 

1.75 

8.00 
2.50 
4.00 
5.00 



3.97 
1.94 



Working oxen. 



Ration per 

head and 

diem. 



Kilos. 
1.00 

6.25 
2.50 
4.00 
4.00 



2.79 
0.56 



Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
4.00 



4.70 
1.28 



Sheep. 



Ration for ten sheep 

of a total weight ot 

500 kilos" 



Kilos. 
1.50 

7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
333 



7.00 



0.25 
1.00 



Kilos, j Kilos. 
1.75 ! 1.50 



8 00 
2.50 
4.00 
7.50 

2.50 



1.74 
1.00 



7.50 
2.50 
4.00 
3.33 

2.50 
20.00 
1.29 

0.54 
1.00 



CHAPTER III. 

Early Prejudice in the United States Against Feeding 
Cattle \\'ltli Sxigai' Beets and Kesidimni Cossettes. 

Respecting American experience in diffusion pulp utilization, 
we "u-ould say that the farmers were at first opposed to it; and 
the total product of the diffusion batteries of the Portland 
factory, for the first year's campaign, was thrown into the bay. 
In subsequent years a portion of it was sold; those who experi- 
mented with it give some valuable testimonials regarding its 
nourishing value. Messrs. George Blansee & Co., of Cumber- 
land, for example, estimated that it was worth, as a fodder for 
cattle, at least $5 a ton. The difficulty with which that com- 
pany had to contend may be judged from a letter a New Eng- 
land farmer writes to one of our weekly papers, as follows: 
" The Maine Beet Sugar Company expected the farmers to buy 
back the pulp at $2 per ton, but could not make them see it! 
The pulp of potatoes * at the starch factor}^ is worthless, and is 
shoveled into the mill-race. Why should that of the beet be 
any better ?" It is to be regretted that communications of this 
character should receive public attention through the press or 
otherwise, and the writer would have been only too glad not to 
call attention to them, but it seems best to explain or rectify 
such statements. In the first place, the shoveling of potato 
pulp into the mill-race is a wasteful practice, as this refuse has 
a decidedly practical value as a fodder. It is in Europe gener- 
ally combined with other roots, and in no case is it thrown 
away. These are facts that the farmer quoted above has over- 

*In France this potato pulp has many industrial applications, the most im- 
portant being the manufacture of poudrette for manuring purposes. It is also 
largely used in the manufacture of tobacco boxes; it is also mixed with coal, 
etc. , for fuel. If, after boiling, it is applied to cotton or woolen goods, it will 
give them a rich brown hue. 

(210) 



EARLY PREJUDICE IN UNITED STATES. 211 

looked, and in his ignorance and prejudice he advocates that a 
still more valuable pulp from the beet should meet the same 
fate as that from potatoes. If this pulp utilization was a new 
idea, the question might be open to discussion; but the practice 
has existed in France for the past seventy years, and far from 
the diffusion pulp being refused by the farmers — as perhaps the 
above quoted correspondence would convey — they are unwilling 
to grow beets unless a certain proportion of the weight is re- 
turned in pulp, for which they pay a reasonable price. If the 
Maine Beet Sugar Company was unfortunate enough to have this 
contention with farmers who are unable to see what is to their 
own interest, that is no reason why all American factories should 
have the same difficulty. In conclusion it should be said, 
that the refuse from a starch factory has no more relation to the 
secondary products of a beet-sugar factory than the primitive 
roots have to each other. If, at the first, the nourishing equiva- 
lents of the beet and the potato had been compared, all would 
have been in favor of the latter; but the various processes of 
starch manufacture have attained a greater degree of perfection 
than those of the product of the beet. The problem of starch 
manufacture is far easier, because the numerous saline difficulties 
are not presented. This becomes more apparent when the re- 
sults obtained at numerous starch factories are considered; the 
refuse from those at Watertown, for example containing only 
0.01 to 0.1 per 'cent, of the original starch found in the potato. 
At the Delaware factory the demand for the beet pulp was so 
great that the company was unable to supply even one-half of 
what might have been sold. The same may be said of the 
Franklin Company. The Alvarado factory at first was not so 
fortunate, but California farmers now commence to appreciate 
the value of this refuse, as is demonstrated by the dairying ex- 
periment of the current campaign. 

Of the annoying prejudices against pulps and beets we may 
mention one coming under our notice in the Northern States, 
where it was asserted that the amount of milk a cow would give 
per day would be diminished, and the milk would have a taste 
that might or might not be objectionable. Another example: 
One of our friends at Bryn Mawr, near Philadelphia, was feed- 



212 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ing an infant with the railk of a cow, and positive!}' declined to 
give beets in an}' amount to the animal that supplied the ele- 
ments of existence to his beloved child, contending that the 
result might be disastrous to the infant's constitution, and also 
asserting there could be no possible doubt that the milk was 
directly acted upon by the food the animal consumed. There 
was nothing new in all this, but there was error when bad 
qualities were attributed to the milk yielded by cows fed upon 
green roots. There is scarcely any limit to similar examples, 
the patience of the reader must not be overtaxed by relating 
them; it need only be said that they have little force of argu- 
ment. Similar theories were upheld against the potato prior to 
its introduction to our markets. After Sir Walter Raleigh was 
successful in convincing the inhabitants of Great Britain of its 
importance, it became, and is at present, the principal article of 
subsistence in Ireland; and when that crop fails there, famine 
is the usual result. The same rule applies now to the beet, and 
we can positively assert that, if it were no longer grown in the 
northern parts of France, it would give rise to a serious panic in 
that country. The number of cattle and the resulting revenue 
from their sale would necessarily diminish for the want of a 
substitute for the usual food, and the farming population would 
be the sufferers. The prosperity usually so great in the districts 
named would revert to the condition existing before these 
valuable roots were grown. 

In the foregoing an instance of American prejudice as it ex- 
isted sixteen years ago was given, and a recent and very extraordi- 
nary conclusion arrived at in Minnesota is quoted. The following 
items taken from the local press show in a most characteristic 
manner the complete ignorance of certain officials about sub- 
jects they are called upon to discuss. 

In the Minneapolis Tribune we read: 

"It is quite likely that the health commissioner, in conjunc- 
tion, with the dairy and food department of the State, will take 
action against the dairymen who are feeding their milch cows 
refuse from the beet-sugar factory at St. Louis Park. 

" The commissioner took steps in the matter several months 
ago, but allowed it to drop because his authority in the prem- 



EARLY PREJUDICE IN UNITED STATES. 213 

ises was questioned. Now, however, he is free to act as he 
pleases, because of an act passed by the last legislature, entitled, 
'An Act to prevent fraud in the sale of dairy products,' etc., 
which act places beet-sugar pulp in the same category as distil- 
lery waste, etc., and prohibits its use as food for cows in any 
part of the State of Minnesota. 

"Many authorities claim that beet pulp is a wholesome food 
for cattle, but the dairy and food department of Minnesota ap- 
parently does not, and some action, therefore, may be looked 
for." 

The Minneapolis Journal says: 

"The point has been generally overlooked, but the last legis- 
lature did single out sugar-beet refuse for discrimination and 
put it on the forbidden hst. H. F. No. 499, entitled "An 
Act to prevent fraud in the sale of dairy products, etc.,' 
drawn by the dairy and food department and expressing its 
ideas as to the necessary laws for the preservation of the dairy 
industry and the pubhc health, under chapter 5 distinctly places 
sugar-beet pulp in the same category as distillery waste, etc. , 
and prohibits its use as food for cows in any part of the State. 
The only qualification is that it may be used if properly pre- 
served in silos. 

"So far as known none has been so preserved, and so far as 
it has been used it has come from the big pile lying alongside 
the sugar factory. Under the law the pulp in its present con- 
dition is not being properly preserved, and milkmen who use 
it are doing so at their peril. The commissioner or anybody 
else who is convinced that the public health is being endangered 
by its use can take steps to stop it if so inclined. * * ^ 

"The head of the dairy department took some pains last 
winter to look into the matter. ^ ^ -^ J will admit that the 
smell from the decaying surface of the pulp piles was not appe- 
tizing. But there is no reason in the world why a few inches 
underneath it should not be as fully preserved as if kept in an 
air-tight silo. There will be more or less fermentation, probably 
the same as in the silo, but that fact in no way detracts from 
the wholesomeness of the stuff as a food for milch cows or any 
other stock. The decayed pulp on the surface is, of course, 
wholly unfit for use. 



214 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

" The chemist of the Department of Animal Husbandry took 
practically the same view of the case. He was unaware of the 
fact that the law had declared against the use of beet pulp, and 
thought it was a mistake to do so on the ground that the facts 
did not warrant such a law. 

"Nevertheless, with all the authorities seemingly against 
them, it is understood that the dairy and food department of 
the State is prepared to enforce the law as it stands on the 
statutes. ' ' 

Numerous similar examples could be given of tops and leaves, 
etc., being declared worthless for cattle feeding, the milk and 
butter being said to have unpleasant taste and flavor. 

It has been apparently overlooked that frequently these pro- 
ducts had been poorly siloed and when fed were in a semi- 
decomposed condition. 

A very recent example is given in Bulletin No. 74 of the Utah 
experiment station, the title of which is "Lead in sugar-beet 
pulp." We extract from its pages as follows: "Though the 
intrinsic feeding value of sugar-beet pulp is so well established, 
there come to the station frequent inquiries concerning the pos- 
sible danger in the use of beet pulp as a stock feed. Com- 
plaints are sometimes made that cattle are sick and dying, and 
as the only unusual condition was the beet pulp that they 
were receiving, the blame was unjustl}^ attributed to the use 
of that food. It was discovered that beet pulp had been 
shipped in cars that had been used for hauling lead ore, 
and that the particles of ore remaining in the imperfectly 
cleaned cars had become mixed with the pulp, were eaten 
by the stock and had resulted in numerous cases of lead 
poisoning. The beet pulp should be shipped only in wagons 
or cars that have been thoroughly cleansed. In Utah, the dan- 
ger from contamination with lead and other ores that remain in 
railroad freight cars is very great." This difficulty could in a 
large measure be overcome by introducing a suitable dryer at 
the factory, as dried pulps in bags would not be contaminated 
by exterior influences. Argue as one may the fact remains that 
there exists great carelessness in the shipping, and as a result 
the general utilization of this valuable residuum will be very 



EARLY EXPERIMENTS AT CHINO. 215 

considerably retarded. Man}^ fanners do not seek for the cause, 
but are content to observe facts, their argument evidently now 
being that beet pulp contains lead ores and should not be used 
for cattle feeding. The intelligent feeder will avail himself of 
the Utah experience and insist upon a hitherto unknown care 
in cleaning cars that are to be used for the transportation of the 
product from the factory to the farm. 

In California the question of feeding cossettes to cattle has Successful intro- 
become very important. Among the early experiments we may duction otpulp 
mention those near Moro Coso, where success is assured. After '^'l ^"^ '" 
one year's keeping the siloed product was so hard that it could 
be cut with a knife. Cattle showed greater preference for it than 
for any other fodder. The silo pits used are planked on both 
sides and bottom, with drainage box beneath. When the pits are 
filled the upper surface is covered with straw. Arrangements 
are said to have been made to use the sand hills for siloing, and 
to feed the pulp this year. 

Efforts made at sun-drying beet residuum did not prove a 
success. The experiments at Chino in beet feeding are not 
sufficiently far advanced to report any special results. It is 
interesting, however, to call attention to some efforts made at 
the Linwood dairy of feeding bran and alfalfa with fresh beet 
pulp. 

At a later period Mr. Gird took up the question on a very Early experiments 
thorough basis. At one time he wrote that the steers at Chino. 
fattened were brought from Arizona and fed on siloed pulp and 
hay, in the ratio of about 5 pounds of chopped hay to 60 or 70 
pounds of siloed pulp. It is recommended not to use the beet 
pulp until it has been in silos for at least 60 days. 

An interesting example may be given of the excellent effects 
to be expected from feeding beet pulp to cattle. During the 
campaign about 60 wandering cattle were brought to the ranch; 
they were thin and in very poor condition; "they are now," 
says Mr. Gird, " as fine as any cattle I ever saw." 

At first, they were fed on raw pulp, and afterwards on the 
siloed pulp, when the fresh product was exhausted at the end of 
the campaign. "They did much better on the siloed material 
than on the fresh," continues Mr. Gird, "I find that pulp. 



216 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

either crude as it comes from the factory or after it is siloed, 
is the best sheep feed I have ever used. With a very small 
amount of whole straw or hay with the beet pulp, the sheep 
fatten surprisingly soon, and their meat is very fine. Six 
weeks are sufficient to make a sheep as fat as needful, and 
as profitable and agreeable to use as mutton can be, and the 
trouble of feeding them is but little. As to dairy cows, only 60 
pounds of siloed pulp are fed per diem." 

" Although in the fall of the year the cows are by no means 
fresh, still they are doing as well as they would in the spring 
season on the best of green grass; the butter is of a fine quality, 
naturally hard and not in the least oily, as is the case with 
butter from alfalfa-fed cows; in fact, the butter is of a superior 
quality to any I have made from other classes of feed," 

Mr. Gird further says: "I have about 1,000 cattle in the pens, 
and am feeding as above stated. They are doing finely and take 
to the feed in the course of about a week, when they seem to 
eat it with more relish than anything that can be placed before 
them. I think it important to chop the hay, and intimately 
mix it with the pulp. I am using cornstalks, and by mixing 
with the pulp in this manner the}'' eat every particle, and 
nothing is wasted." 

"My silo is 500 feet long, 60 wide and 10 deep; the pulp 
is delivered into it from cars run on a trestle and taken out 
on two racks laid on the bottom of the silo on each side of the 
trestle, which I find a very convenient plan. I have from 10,000 
to 12,000 tons of pulp in the silo now in magnificent condition; 
the cossettes (after having been freed from most of the moisture 
b}^ drains and other appliances) have about the consistence of 
old cheese." 

In a speech before the Dairymen's Aasociation of Southern 
California, Mr. Gird expressed himself as follows: " M}^ ex- 
perience has been, that the dairy cattle will produce about the 
the same amount of butter, and of even better quality, when 
fed upon beet pulp than upon the best grass of pasture land. 
Late in the winter of last year, when grass was exceedingly 
good, after having fed pulp up to the time when it gave out, my 
dairy foreman informed me that the amount of butter was 



EXPERIMENTS AT OXNARD. 217 

reduced nearly one-third in the week after stopping the feeding 
of beet pulp." * * * 

" On December 16, 1893, I put 20 steers in a corral by them- 
selves, and fed them each about 70 pounds pulp per day, with 
about five or six pounds rough hay or straw. * ^ * They 
weighed the day they were put in the corral 40,465 lbs., and 
were fed on pulp for 48 days. On February 2, 1894, they 
were taken out and weighed, their total being 43,125 lbs., or a 
gain in 48 days of 2,660 lbs.; this was 133 lbs. each, which is 
very good. ^ * ^ 

"I have a silo calculated to hold 18,000 or 20,000 tons of 
pulp, being merely an immense trench dug in the ground, 60 
feet wide, 10 feet deep and about 500 feet long. * * ^ i add a 
very small amount of salt to the pulp while being siloed. * >i< * 
The ease with which this pulp can be siloed and kept, is the 
great point in its favor, as it not only practically siloes itself, 
but becomes better as it gets older." ^ * *^ 

No better evidence could be given of the increasing demand Experiments at 
for the residuum beet cossettes than the description given of the Oxnard. 
Oxnard stock yards as described in the Courier. They were 
built in 1900, and there are four, the two larger ones being 
on an average 275 feet long, 45 feet wide and 9 feet deep, and 
the two smaller ones 250 feet long, 35 feet wide and 9 feet deep. 
The sides are sloping and the pulp is filled in to a level with the 
surface of the ground. The two smaller ones were the only ones 
filled in 1900, and contained 224 cars of pulp with an average 
weight of 35 tons to the car, making the amount of pulp stored 
approximately 6000 tons; this means the weight when first put 
into the excavations — it shrinks about one-third by the time 
it is fed to stock. The yards are north of the silos, and are 
divided into four rows of large corrals, between which the 
cars run. There are twenty-three of these corrals, and ten 
mangers of pulp troughs in each one just inside the fence by 
the car track. Nine of them are filled with pulp and the last 
one with salt. At the side of each corral opposite the places 
where the pulp is fed, hay and straw are placed. The cars which 
contain 8 tons of pulp are drawn up the track between the 
corrals and the pulp is unloaded into the troughs with forks. In 



218 TEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

this way 100 lbs. pulp and 14 lbs. of straw from wagons on the 
other side are fed to each animal each day. The ratio in 1899 
was 10|- lbs. of straw and 112 lbs. of pulp to each animal. The 
corrals are built on sandy coast-land, and are well drained. 
Experiments at At Watsonville several thousand cows are fed upon siloed 
Watsonville, Cal. cossettes, which is an important progress as compared with the 
first years of the factory's existence. The residuum costs about 
one dollar delivered as it is used, and this includes loading, 
hauling, etc. 

A recent government report states: " There was a time when 
the Pacific Slope used to call upon the Mississippi Valley 
for her butter and upon the Eastern States and New England 
for her cheese, but since the introduction of the beet sugar 
industry California has rapidly forged to the front as a dairy 
State. A large part of this change has been brought about by 
the introduction of beet pulps as food for the dairy. One of the 
most interesting examples of this fact Avill be found at Watson- 
ville, Cal. Dairies have sprung up in all directions in that 
vicinity. Milk trains are running to San Francisco, and the 
dairy interests in that vicinity are almost wholly the result of 
pulp feeding. * * * It happens that the creameries there pre- 
ceded the sugar factories." 

A herd of 200 milch cows kept near a beet-sugar factory 
about 40 miles south of San Francisco, is given a daily ration of 
60 lbs. pulp, 5 lbs. of mixed ground grain and a little hay. 
The cows milked averaged almost two gallons each per day. 
The milk is shipped to a dealer in San Francisco, who pays 12^ 
cents per gallon for it the year through. The production is 
greatest from February to May. Butter made from milk of this 
herd for experimental export was found to have exceedingly 
good body, a satisfactory flavor and an apparently first class 
keeping. Near Watsonville 100 lbs. are fed to each animal. 

It is said that beet tops from certain California beet fields 
sell for $3.50 to $4.00 per acre on the ground. IMany farm- 
ers fed the tops alone. Experience seems to show that with 
the addition of bran the results obtained are more satisfactory. 
Only in some exceptional cases were there complaints respect- 
ing the flavor imparted to butter through top feeding. An 



CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 219 

example of this top feeding may be given of a dairj'man who 
brought his entire herd of 90 grade Durham and Holstein cows 
to the farm when he had bought the privilege of using the 
tops. The owner stated that their milk yield doubled in a 
short time. The beet tops in some cases are fed several months 
in the year. The butter from top-fed cows may be packed in 
rolls and covered with brine and be kept for months. 

A correspondent of the California experiment station expresses Conclusions of 
himself as follows: "It would be difficult to economically feed the California 
pulp away from the factory, as the transportation and handling " ''! 
are quite expensive. Factories sell pulp at from 10 to 25 cents 
per ton, the former price having been the custom when taken 
away from the factory, the latter when conveniences and facili- 
ties for feeding cattle have been furnished at or near the factory. 
I doubt any profitable use of pulp for beet feeding at over 25 
cents per ton. At this price and the usual value of grain and 
hay or straw, it will cost from $9.00 to $12.00 per head to put 
the animal in a good marketable condition. ^ * * I believe that 
small farmers Avho do their own work can functionalize cattle 
and fatten them and sell at a profit." As for dairy cattle feed- 
ing, it is claimed that 20 to 25 lbs. per head daily is a sufficient 
amount of pulp for a dair}^ cow, and to it there should be added 
25 to 30 lbs. of uncut hay and 5 pounds of middlings. Another 
dairyman of some importance does not hesitate to feed 80 lbs. 
per diem, combined with 6 to 7 lbs. of hay and 6 lbs. mixed 
"chop" feed. A well known authority declares that the 
climate of California is not the most suitable for feeding pur- 
poses, especially in winter. Another correspondent advances 
views that are of considerable interest: " When cattle are once 
started on pulp feed, particularly when they are to be fattened 
for beef, it is advisable to continue them at that until fully fat, 
and then slaughter them. If cattle have been fed on this feed 
for a season, it is highly advisable, if they have reached the 
desired stage, not to take them on green pasture, as this affects 
them seriously." 

Messrs. Jaffa and Leroy Anderson, discussing the question of 
cossette feeding from a California point of view, say that cos- 
settes when fed in connection with other dry feed not only serve 



220 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

to keep the digestion in a healthful condition, but add materi- 
ally to the store of actual food substance. It may be that 25 to 
to 30 lbs. per day of pulp will induce as large a flow of milk as 
80 lbs. per day Avhen the rest of the feed is dry; the idea be- 
ing that the lesser quantity gives the cow all the succulent food 
and change of diet which she really requires for the best pro- 
duction. When the pulp must be hauled a long distance and 
the cost of transportation is therefore great, it would undoubt- 
edly be unwise to feed it in larger amounts than just to give the 
necessary succulence to the ration, and 25 lbs. is probably suffi- 
cient for this purpose. But when the dairy is situated adjacent 
to the sugar factory, as at Alvarado, it might pay to feed the 
pulp in much larger quantities. 

In California the general feeding with residuum cossettes has 
on the whole been very satisfactory, and a very extended trial 
has been given. The allowance per diem is 80 to 100 lbs. per 
1,000 lbs. live weight. In some cases 10 to 12 lbs. of lima bean 
straw combined with the residuum have given satisfactory re- 
sults; in others, 10 to 15 lbs. uncut hay and 25 to 50 lbs. finely 
rolled barley. The fattening lasts about 90 to 100 days. In 
one case 8,000 head of beef cattle were fed for four months. It 
was found that the meat from pulp-fed cattle was very much 
better than the alfalfa. "The meat was of fine flavor, good 
color, marbleized, and killing very white as to fat." The opin- 
ions as to the value of the residuum per ton is very varied, some 
saying 50 cents while others place the price at one dollar. 

The California experiment station says that "the value of 
tops for feeding purposes may be estimated at $1.58 while for fer- 
tilizing purposes they would be worth $1.65. It is declared that 
if tops are used as food and the manure is saved, about three- 
fourths of the fertilizing value of the original substance is still 
retained. While this is true theoretically, it is hardly ever so 
practically, particularly with reference to the nitrogen, the most 
costly of the fertilizing elements. In very few instances, unless 
the animals are pastured, is the urine saved to the soil, and this 
part of the excreta contains the major part of the nitrogen. The 
nitrogen in the manure is not by any means all available, at 
best not more than 50 per cent. , and in most cases not even so 



CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION, 221 

much. On this basis the fertilizing value of the manure would 
be about 80 cents (three-fourths of the potash and phosphoric 
acid and one-fourth of the nitrogen). This added to the value 
as food, $1.58, increases the net value to $2.38 and the differ- 
ence (73 cents) between this sum and the fertihzing value is 
fully made up in the green manurial value of the vegetable 
matter in the tops." The California station does not recom- 
mend the tops for dairies that supply milk to be consumed as 
such on account of the bitter taste imparted to the milk " Ex- 
penments in feeding sugar-beet cossettes were not numerous 
but the herd fed during a period of ten weeks showed that when 
no beet pulp was used, the cows ate on an average about 20 lbs 
of hay per head daily in addition to 8 lbs. of grain, while when 
eatmg beet pulp, the daily consumption of hay varied from 6 to 
10 lbs. The beet pulp seemed to impart no foreign or disagree- 
able flavor to the milk. The milk was delivered daily to'cus- 
tomers m Berkeley and no complaint was made. The effect of 
the pulp upon. the flow of milk was on the whole beneficial 
Most of the cows were decreasing in yield up to the time when 
we began to feed beet pulp, after which all increased in quan- 
tity, and continued to hold out well until the beet pulp was ex- 
hausted when there was a noticeable decrease." The official 
report of the notes upon dairying in Cahfornia says pulp has a 
tendency to fatten and is given to beef cattle without any other 
food, but for milch cows its effect is found to be best when used 
with a httle grain or hay. Without the latter it is supposed to 
produce a thin and watery milk. When pulp is fed in consid- 
erable quantity the animals do not care for water and may go 
for months without drink. A feeder who has been using this by- 
product for several years complains that when his cows have 
been fed for a long time on pulp their calves are likely to come 
weak and troubled with sores. 

In Nebraska the subject of feeding beet pulps to cattle is being 
very generally agitated, and farmers who have given the matter 
a trial are pleased with the results obtained. The fact that very 
little cotton-seed meal, oil cake, etc., is used in rations for 
milch cows does not prove that these are not beneficial. Many 
other by-products may take their place when heavv feeding is 



222 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

desired. The siloed pulp analyzed by the Nebraska station had 
the following composition : Water 88.64; acidity 0.19; dry 
matter 11.36; ether extract .09; crude protein 1.24: crude fibre 
2.94; nitrogen-free extract 6.69; ash 0.39. 
Experience at At Grand Island, Neb., a stock feeder who has had con- 
Orandlsland.lNeb. siderable experience with residuum cossettes says that when 
the feeding commenced he fed for several days 20 to 25 lbs. 
of pulp with hay and grain or meal mixed with it. This was 
gradually increased to 40 to 50 lbs. He also tried 80 to 90 
lbs. per head, but considers this a disadvantage in fattening 
cattle, as they eat less grain and meal. Pulp helps to digest 
the food and lessens the danger of overfeeding. After feeding 
from ninety to one hundred days, he advises going back grad- 
ually to 20 or 25 lbs. of pulp per day, increasing the grain food, 
etc., and finds it better to give ground feed with pulp rather 
than whole grain. The pulp-fed cattle will sell as readily as 
any other, as they dress and ship as well, even for export. 
Cattle will eat poor and damaged roughage, which they other- 
wise would not touch, if it is mixed with pulp. 
Experience at The leading pioneer of residuum pulp feeding in Nebraska 
Ames, Neb. has been the Standard Cattle Co., at Ames, and extracts and 
comments giving in considerable detail their experience from 
the beginning are quoted. Several years since the following 
statement was made: "Beet pulp cannot be profitably used, as 
I think, except when fed to animals that are sheltered in a 
warm place." No experiments had been made; this was 
simply an assertion. Since that time Mr. Allen, of the com- 
pany, has given the question a great deal of attention. He 
says : 

"The average amount of ground feed that we have given 
cattle in out-door lots, in mid-winter, ranged from 25 to 28 lbs. 
per day; indoor fed cattle, 16 to 20 lbs. Last winter we 
shipped pulp-fed cattle that had been fed only ten pounds 
of grain; some that had been fed only six pounds through three- 
fourths of their feed." 

As regards cattle fed on grain, it is assumed that the number 
is 3,000,000, and the cost of food of each animal is estimated at 
This means $57,000,000. The saving for cattle feed alone 



EXPERIENCE AT AMES, NEB. 223 

would be $20,000,000 by beet-pulp feeding. The beet-tops and 
leaves are estimated to be worth S2 per acre for feeding pur- 
poses. By the proper utilization of these, combined with the 
residuum pulp from factories, there would follow a valuable 
saving over the average cost of to-day. 

Prof. Nicholson at the time stated, that the Standard Cattle 
Co. at Ames, Nebraska, fed pulp in three rations: First, ten 
pounds of oil cake and corn meal to from seventy to ninety 
pounds of pulp; second, six pounds of oil cake and meal lo one 
hundred pounds of pulp; third, twenty-three pounds of ensilage 
to seventy pounds of pulp. 

Mr. Allen some time since addressed to a government official 
the following remarks on silos which would hardly be acceptable 
in Europe: "The surplus that accumulates beyond requirements 
is thrown from the cars near the factory into a large pile awaiting 
use after the campaign is over and the fresh supply from the 
factory is cut off. From our experience I judge it is not neces- 
sary to take pains to preserve the pulp. At some sugar factories 
more or less expensive silos have been made, one, for instance, 
at Ogden, Utah, and similar ones at Lehi. I have no doubt 
there is a saving of pulp by the use of these silos, but I should 
judge the interest on the cost of these silos and the additional 
labor required in getting the pulp out would exceed the value 
of the pulp lost." 

The experiments of the Standard Cattle Co. continue to be a 
pronounced success. The resident of the company wrote to a 
trade journal two years since as follows: " The past winter we 
fed on pulp 30,000 sheep which were fed regularly — the figures 
herewith are averages and include all classes of sheep. The 
heaviest wethers sold averaged 135 lbs. and heaviest lambs 100 
lbs. at market. Some of the sheep sold on the Omaha market 
killed out 52 per cent, of dressed mutton. 

" We have not, even to the largest sheep, fed to exceed eleven 
pounds per head a day at any time and our maximum average 
feed was ten pounds a day. We are inclined to think that this 
is too large a feed of pulp for grown sheep, and that seven or 
eight pounds is rather more than should be fed to lambs. 

" At first the effect of heavy pulp feed is not perceptible, but 



224 FEEDING WITH SUCxAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

after a while it is extremely diuretic in its effects and, we 
thought, produced a malady from which a number of sheep 
died. 

"We regard seven pounds of pulp per day to lambs and ten 
pounds to sheep a maximum beyond which it is not safe to go. 
The total pulp fed was 11,971 tons." 

In a recent correspondence with Mr. Allen upon the subject, 
he says: "There is no extended information respecting feeding 
pulp to cattle, as this is the first winter in which we are using 
it in any volume, and the feeding season is not yet half through; 
therefore, the only figures I can show you are those of sheep 
feeding. It will take years before there is any valued recorded 
experience in pulp feeding. I send you figures regarding our 
cattle feeding in order that you may see what a variety of pro- 
ducts are fed to cattle and where the pulp will come in. No 
doubt we are this winter making a valuable saving of food pro- 
ducts by the use of pulp, but we cannot demonstrate it in figures. 
I send you also some of our tables v^^hich may aid you a little. 

"We are this year feeding 4,000 cattle and 31,500 sheep, 
which are being fed on pulp with other products. And we 
have also been able to make very good use of the beet tops left 
in the fields, having grazed our cattle altogether through a period 
of more than 60 days on as many as 1500 acres of beet fields 
after harvesting, getting therefrom possibly as much as $10,- 
000.00 in food. 

" In this part of the country where corn has been the onl}'- 
food product understood and appreciated by farmers, pulp has 
been little appreciated, and probably some experiments of feed- 
ing in midwinter have not been successful. It is gaining ground, 
however, in public opinion. Where it can be fed without freez- 
ing, its value is no doubt great enough to be well worth consid- 
ering in a sugar proposition. I have been very careful about 
what I have said about pulp, but we feel now that it has greater 
value than we have ever yet felt free to claim for it. I append 
hereto our superintendent's opinion as to the value of beet pulp. 

" In feeding 300 steers in one yard, we fed from one and one 
half to two loads of cut fodder per day with all the pulp they 
would clean up. The fodder weighs about 3,000 lbs. to the 



EXPERIENCE AT AMES, NEB. 225 

load. This year we figure 30 per cent, corn in the fodder 
which would make from 6 to 8 lbs. of corn to the steer per day, 
besides all the pulp he could eat. We got some of the Awards up 
to 60 lbs., but they eat from 40-50 lbs. to the head per day. 
So I believe the cattle, which are on from 8-10 lbs. of grain, a 
fill on beet tops once a day, and all the pulp they can eat, will 
make a better gain than on a full feed of grain alone. By the 
time our beet tops were used up we had the cattle, as you are 
aware, up to a fair grain ration of about 10 lbs., besides what 
was in the fodder. As soon as we stopped feeding pulp we were 
compelled to feed each yard of 300 cattle from 30 to 50 cwt, of 
cut fodder more than they had been getting, and still with this 
increase the cattle did not look nearly so well. I am of the 
opinion that cattle, say on a 15 lb. ration of grain and 40 lbs. of 
pulp, will make a better gain than cattle on a 25 lb. ration of 
grain without any pulp; the only trouble that exists is that cold 
weather stops feeding outside. If one could have cattle ready 
to feed as soon as the pulp could be obtained, say September 
15th to December 15th, this would give three months of good 
Aveather, and with the proper care, if one wanted to crowd either 
cattle or sheep, they would be in pretty good shape for a grain 
finish by that time. I believe one gets better results, or at least 
is able to see the results better, on older cattle than on younger. 
There were a number of milch cows on the place being fed on 
pulp and straw, without any grain whatever, and they kept up 
a good flow of milk and also gained in flesh. 

"I believe pulp fed with corn fodder, straw or other dry 
foods creates better digestion, and animals are consequently 
able to get more good out of each product. Making a rough 
estimate I should say that where a person has stock, beet tops 
are worth from $5.00 to $8.00 per acre. With grain the price 
it is this year, I would value pulp at $4.00 per ton." 

The Ames factory can slice about 500 tons of beets per diem; 
there remains consequently over 200 tons residuum pulp. The 
fact is the factory was the outcome of cattle feeding, and one of 
the main objects in view was the securing of the requisite pulp 
for the stock yards, while the reverse was the case of the 
Oxnard Co. 
15 



226 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, 

In Michigan, when there were only ten factories, they offered 
their combined pulp production to the stock yards of Chicago, 
simply asking that it be hauled away. It seems almost laugh- 
able that they did not avail themselves of it at once, but pre- 
ferred to make investigations and thus the opportunity was lost, 
Nearly 50,000 head of cattle could have been fattened under 
most favorable conditions. 
Michigan experi- The Michigan Slate College Experiment Station has given the 
ment station, question of sugar beet cossettes serious attention, and an out- 
line of the conclusions relating to the same is of great interest. 
Since the establishment of the several beet sugar factories in the 
State, a new stock feed has been placed at the disposal of the 
farmers. There is an urgent claim that the farmers have the 
product delivered to them containing 20 per cent, dry matter; 
this by usual means of pressing is hardly to be expected. In 
Michigan alone, even with the thirteen existing beet sugar 
factories, the annual output of the residuum cossettes is not less 
than 300,000 tons. It is to be regretted that most of this 
valuable product is lost, being simply taken from the factories 
by a conveyor, dumped and left to decay. Under these circum- 
stances, the hygienic condition of the environment is in danger, 
and the residents in man}^ cases make justified complaints. 
The Michigan station undertook the experiment, in a practical 
way, of testing the 'Walue of beet pulp as a succulent food 
when combined with dry feeds." The first experiments were 
conducted on the Grafton farm near Alma. The main object in 
view w^as to feed several hundred steers with as little outlay as 
possible, while in experiments made at Pearl, in western Michi- 
gan, the steers were to be fattened as rapidly as possible. On 
the farm at Alma, the "herd was divided into two lots, one 
containing thirty steers to receive pulp, and the other twenty 
steers to be fed the same basal ration but no pulp. Prior to 
the beginning of the experiment, all of the steers had received 
pulp. It was necessary, therefore, gradually to remove the 
pulp from the twenty steers that were to receive none during 
the experiment. A comparison of the amount of feed required 
to produce a hundred pounds of gain indicates that 3,885 lbs. 
of pulp was equal in feeding value to 881.3 lbs. of stover, 1,086 



MICHIGAN EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 

lbs. of hay and 186.6 lbs. of grain. . . . The gain with the 
pulp-fed steers up was 2,845 lbs. or 93.8 lbs. per steer, while 
without pulp the twenty steers gained 1,120 lbs. or 56 lbs. per 
steer. ... To carry a steer through thirteen weeks of winter, 
simply keeping the animal thrifty and growing, without an 
attempt to make the gains made in the interval pay for the 
feeds, required per steer 5.024 lbs. of pulp with 775.7 lbs. of 
mixed hay, 356 lbs. of shredded stover and 224 lbs. of grain. 
Without the pulp, it required per animal 275 lbs. more hay 
and 364 lbs. more stover. Taking these figures as a basis, and 
remembering that each pulp-fed steer gained 67 lbs. more in 
weight in the thirteen weeks, it is possible to estimate the value 
of the pulp as a factor in a ration designed to carry steers 
through the winter cheaply, if that form of cattle feeding is ever 
desired. The director of the Michigan station, discussing these 
results, says : "It required per day and steer with the pulp-fed 
lot 55 lbs. of pulp, 8.5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. of shredded corn 
stover and 2.4 lbs. ground grain. On this ration the steers 
made an average daily gain of 1.42 lbs. The lot receiving no 
pulp had for a daily ration 11.5 lbs. of mixed hay, 8 lbs. of 
shredded corn stover and 2.4 lbs. of grain, and made a daily 
gain of 0.684 lbs. Comparing the amounts of food consumed 
by each pen, to produce a hundred pounds of gain, and com-, 
puting from this data the value of a ton of pulp as an additional 
succulent fodder, the tests show that under the conditions exist- 
ing, a ton of pulp, fed with the other factors of the ration took 
the place of 421.5 pounds of corn stover, 274 pounds of mixed 
hay and 68.8 lbs. of grain. 

The experiments at the Pearl farm are of equal interest. In 
this case a herd of twenty steers were divided into two lots, to 
one of which was given a ration of mint hay, wheat bran, and 
corn meal, while to the other lot was given the same ration and 
beet pulp in addition. The pulp-fed steers made an average 
daily gain of 2.52 lbs., while the steers which had no pulp 
made a daily gain of 1.84 lbs. Consequently a ton of pulp 
took the place of 244 lbs. of mint hay, 32.6 lbs. of wheat bran, 
296 lbs. of corn meal and 27.2 lbs. of oats. It is interesting to 
recall the experiments in feeding dairy cows in the winter of 



228 FEEDING WITH SUGAE, BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

1898-99. The pulp used was hauled on cars from Bay City to 
Lansing, and it neither froze nor fermented, but kept fresh 
until eaten. It one case cows for some unknown reason refused 
to eat the residuum. 

Without going into the details of this experiment, it is impor- 
tant to note that with pulp there resulted 128.4 lbs. of butter fat, 
while without pulp the yield was 130 lbs., which was not in 
favor of the pulp-fed cows, and apparently no advantage was 
gained. As regards milk production, there was a decided 
advantage in favor of pulp, for in this case there were 7,258 lbs. 
milk, and without pulp 6,844 lbs., a difference of 415 lbs., 
which is considerable. The practical feeders of Michigan ex- 
press their opinion favorably as regards the expected advantages 
to be derived from residuum cossette feeding. With fresh beets 
the results were favorable, but, as might have been expected, 
with the frozen product complications arose. It is interesting 
to note what one farmer from Kalamazoo says: "I commenced 
feeding on one half a bushel of pulp a day and increased 
gradually until my cows were eating one bushel a day, but at 
that point they seemed to get tired of it, and the effect on their 
bowels was bad." It remains to be seen whether the pulp or 
the other coastituents of the ration were responsible! 
Cossette drying. In Michigan the question of cossette feeding has now been 
considerably extended, and a special appliance has been intro- 
duced for drying the residuum. Louisiana Planter and Sugar 
Manufacturer gives a description of it, as follows: "The pulp 
after leaving the factory contains 90 per cent, moisture. 
From the conveyor it goes to a set of apple-graters, where 
it is cut into small pieces dropping into large vats, where 
sufficient water is added to enable the pumps to handle 
it. Then it is forced through filter presses. There will be 
two presses of 40 cells each. The plates will be of wood, 
octagon in shape, covered Avith perforated brass plates No. OG 
gauge. Between the plates are steel rings 35 inches in diametei 
by 4 inches wide. The pulp enters the press in three different 
places, and is evenly distributed to each cell by a spiral screw 
going through the center; the pressure carried is from 60 to IGC 
lbs. per square inch. Leaving the pressure with 60 per cent. 



NEW YORK. 229 

moisture, it drops into a screw-conveyor, the low-product mo- 
lasses with it, and contains about 25 per cent, of water just 
before entering the dryer. The dryer is a large drum, made 
similar to a sugar granulator, being 6 feet in diameter and 40 
feet long. There will be two of them making 6 revolutions 
per minute. Inside the drum enters a hot-air conduit (cone- 
shaped) perforated with 600 4-inch holes. There is an inner 
shell, one-half inch from the outer, running the full length of 
the drum, having shelves similar to a sugar granulator. This 
inner one is to protect the outer from coming in contact with 
the vapors, and also to retain the heat. The heat is generated 
by a coal or coke furnace, and is drawn through the drum by a 
suction fan at the discharge end, the heat being very intense on 
entering, but leaving the drum at only 130°. After traveling 
40 feet in 35 minutes the pulp leaves the dryer, containing from 
7 to 11 per cent, moisture. After passing through a set of roll- 
ers, being ground as fine as bran, it is then sacked for foreign 
shipment and baled so that a ton will go in 72 cubic feet. A 
40 H. P. engine will supply all the power needed, and the build- 
ing has two floors 50 feet wide b}^ 75 feet long. . , . The cost 
is . . . $16,000, and the expense is about one dollar per ton 
of dry pulp." 

The official reports appertaining to the success of this plant 
were not favorable, while at Alma, where the second plant has 
been introduced, they are much more encouraging. 

New York may be considered one of the important dairying New York. 
States of the East, as it there has an influence directly and in- 
directly upon the entire rural question. During a long period 
of years farmers have been feeding brewers' wastes, and realize 
that the milk and butter from cows thus fed have been bene- 
fited. No other product within the past few years met the 
requirements of cheap dairying production better than this. 
Hence there has been comparatively little trouble in inducing 
the farmer to handle the product from the existing beet-sugar 
factories. This has been a considerable financial assistance to 
the Binghamton factory, who were able to dispose of their resi- 
duum at an average price of about 75 cents per ton. 

At one time New York farmers were somewhat alarmed at 



230 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

the prospect of an invasion of live stock to be sent from 
Montana, which was to utilize the residuum of the beet-sugar 
factories, 
Itah. At Utah several thousand head of cattle are fattened almost 

at the door of the factory. They consume over 100 lbs. of the 
residuum per diem, to which are added about 15 lbs. hay. 

From the early building of the Lehi factory provisions were 
made for the pulp utilization, with the view of extending the 
dairying interest of the State. Several thousand head of cattle 
are fed. 
New Mexico. In New Mexico 5000 sheep were fed in pens not far from the 
Carlsbad i&ctoYy. No complaints were offered to this system of 
feeding, and the results taken on the whole were most satisfac- 
tory. Besides this attempt at feeding, the dairying farmers 
of the locality availed themselves of the opportunity. 

At Eddy there have been fattened over 1000 head of sheep, 
etc., and the experiment met. with success. The fattening 
reached nearly ^ lb. per diem. The residuum pulp was com- 
bined with alfalfa. 
Oregon. The Oregon Sugar Co., during the last campaign, was able to 

dispose of several thousand tons of the residuum, which was 
considered encouraging, and, after it has been fed to sheep, 
other sales may follow; 10,000 tons of pulp remained, and 
nearly all of it appears to have found a ready market at a price 
which varied, according to quantity, from thirty to sixty cents 
per ton. 
Minnesota. At Minnesota the Saint Louis Park factor}^ has been fortunate 
in being able to dispose of its pulp as fast as produced. The 
selling price of the residuum is only about 20 cents per ton. 
Colorado. From Colorado we learn that the Lockhart Live Stock Co. 

has this year been feeding 4,000 head of cattle with 30,000 tons 
of beet pulp. During the campaign previous the farmers took 
very little interest in this question of pulp utilization. At pres- 
ent they are entitled to 20 per cent, of all the residuum and are 
availing themselves of the opportunity. 
Iowa. The importance of feeding pulp and beets to cattle was well 

expressed in a speech made in Iowa by our Secretary of Agri- 
culture: "The managers of the Agricultural College of Iowa, 



IOWA. 231 

where the finest animals of the United States are found, and 
where the best beef, mutton and porlc ever taken to Chicago are 
finished, find it necessary to have roots; and I have no hesita- 
tion in saying that the Iowa farmer can afford to grow roots for 
his animals, no matter how cheaply he can get other feeds. The 
Iowa farmer can afford to grow sugar beets for the pulp alone. 
We must keep an eye on the South American republics. The 
Argentine Confederation has learned to grow alfalfa, and is 
sending very fat grass-fed animals to the European markets," 



PART FOURTH. 

CHAPTER I. 
Molasses for Feeding'. 

Early experi- T^^ first one to suggest molasses as a fodder was Hermstadt, 
ments in molas- in 18J1. A special forage was, as early as 1830, made up of 
ses feeding, chopped straw and 100 kilos of molasses, as a total daily ration 
for 80 head of cattle, 2000 sheep and 20 horses. Petibval, who 
is a thorough believer in the importance of this utilization, 
especially for horses, at that time declared that with molasses 
half a ration of oats was sufficient, and numerous other ex- 
amples could be given of the same kind. 

In Germany, the first efforts to be recorded in this direction 
were by Stockhardt, in 1850, and later by Henneberg and Stoh- 
man, who fed to cattle a mixture of molasses, oat-straw and hay. 
The}^ limited the amount of molasses to be absorbed to 8 kilos 
per 1000 kilos live weight of the animal fed. 

In 1860, Fromenn and Rhode did not obtain very satisfactory 
results with milch cows fed with flour, straw and molasses. 
Gohren, on the other hand, had most excellent returns later on. 

At this same period (1860), the use of molasses became very 
general in France and Russia. In the last-mentioned country 
it was noticed that molasses, when combined with straw or 
chopped hay, overcame certain existing diseases. Excellent 
results were also obtained on these lines in Bohemia. 

In England, the use of molasses for cattle was not general be- 
fore 1870. With the exception of the investigations of Rimpau 
and Christiani nothing remarkable was noticed in favor of 
molasses feeding. On the contrary, the peasants looked upon 
this product with apprehension, as they feared diarrhoea. 
Furthermore, the cost of molasses increased owing to the fact 
that it had a certain use in for the separation methods in sugar 

(232) 



MOLASSES FEEDING IN AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 233 

factories after most of the sugar was extracted and it was, in a 
measure, rendered worthless for feeding purposes. 

In 1885 the sugar crisis demanded that certain measures be 
taken to find some means of increasing the sugar consumption 
in continental Europe, and therefore molasses was proposed as 
a forage. 

The cost of this residuum upon the market decreased, thus 
rendering its utilization feasible, and as a result numerous in- 
vestigations were made and taken up by the community in gen- 
eral. As matters now stand, the combinations may be consid- 
ered a staple commodity on the usual markets, so much so that 
in Germany, in .1895, of 220 beet-sugar factories replying to General use of 
questions put to them by a well-known authority, 130 declared "lo'asses for 
that they sold their molasses for feeding purposes in the propor- 
tion of 10 to 100 per cent, of their production. Twelve of these 
establishments gut rid of all their molasses. 

The amount of molasses used for feeding purposes in Ger- 
many represented 27.6 per cent, of the total production during 
the campaign of 1901, and this fact alone shows to what extent 
the subject has been taken up in that country, it being not only 
the agricultural community that has become interested, but also 
the army at large. 

The advantages for horses are self-evident. Stift says it is Increasing pop- 
much to be regretted that, in Austria, there still exists a certain "''"''*^ "' 

mnlaccpc fppfj- 

prejudice against molasses combinations, mainly due to the bad . . ,. 
management of the middle-man. The army of the country is Hungary, 
the sufferer. 

In Austro-Hungary, during 1900 and 1901, 6 per cent, of the 
total molasses production was used as a forage. In this same 
country 127 of the sugar factories got rid of their molasses in 
this way. It was fed directly to cattle, or in a diluted form, 
mixed with chopped straw, cereal waste, concentrates, peat, etc. 
Certain factories manufacture this feeding stuff, made up of 
molasses and peat, dried cossettes, brewers' grains, palm-oil 
cake, etc. 

In Bohemia, two establishments prepare this fodder and col- 
lect the raw material at the factory proper. As an industry it 
would have attained an even greater extension in that country 



234 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

had not the beet-sugar factories found it advantageous to use 
this residuum for various purposes themselves. 

Possibilities of It is estimated that the yearly production of molasses in 
molasses feeding France is 320,000 tons; if one divides this by the number of 
in France, ^^y^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^jg would give 876,712 kilos per diem. If we 
admit that each animal receives only one kilo, there would be 
sufficient to feed 876,712 heads; but this represents only a very 
small portion of the total number of animals of the country 
which without considering the swine is 9,466,000, showing that 
however large the molasses residuum from beet-sugar factories 
may be, it would have to be several times greater in order to 
meet the demand, if molasses feeding were generally adopted. 

Never before did molasses render a greater service to France 
than during the recent dry spell. Farming produce that would 
have been considered worthless for feeding purposes, has, by the 
addition of molasses, been made most palatable. A great mis- 
take has been made in taxing this residuum beyond a rational 
limit. As a result the government has derived certain advan- 
tages, that have been neutralized by the limited utilization of 
the product among the large and small dairying centers. A 
paradoxical fact relating to the fiscal molasses question is, that 
the manufacturer has every advantage in selling his residuum 
to distillers or for exporting purposes, rather than to the tillers 
of the soil, who, from an agricultural standpoint, have the first 
claim. This fact explains why there should be, at this late day, 
an effort to look after farming interests from a molasses-utiliza- 
tion standpoint. The recent proposed changes make the ques- 
tion still more complicated. 

Molasses utiliza- ^ beet-sugar factory, to work on a profitable basis, must 

tion one of the utilize its residuums. Pulps, molasses and filter scums are pro- 
essentials for clucts having a money value, and if not sold for their money 

protitable sugar gq^^jvaient should at least find some market or utilization and 
not be allowed to go to Avaste, which is the case with the beet 
sugar factories in the United States. The total daily capacity 
of existing beet- sugar factories in this country is about 33,000 
tons, and the resulting residuum molasses is about 1,000 tons or 
2,000,000 lbs., sufficient to feed 250,000 head of cattle for the 
en+'^'e working companies. 



RIVALRY AMONG MANUFACTURERS. 235 

For many j^ears past the question, from a cane molasses point importance of 
of view, has been discussed before the Sugar Planters' Association, molasses utiiiza- 
an account of which may be found in The Louisiana Planter. ^I"" '" 
Many used three-quarters of a barrel per day for eighty head of 
stock, the consumption averaging about 5 lbs. per head per 
diem. It is found that the quantity of hay and grain food 
needed is considerably diminished by this utilization. 

In Texas the cane tops are sprinkled with molasses and then 
fed, stock appearing to prefer it to grain. Some planters fed 
molasses to their mules and horses, and found that they con- 
sumed on an average 12^ lbs. per diem. 

The following additional facts respecting beet molasses are 
considered ver}' important. Molasses from sugar cane contains 
glucose; beet molasses is free from this sugar, but retains a 
larger percentage of salts and other impurities; hence the prob- 
lem of feeding this product from a beet-sugar factory is more 
complicated than when handling a cane residuum. In both 
cases, however, it is mainly the sugar that represents its nutri- 
tive value, and the importance of it for the development of 
work, etc., is now admitted by all who have examined the 
question. 

Between the various modes of preparing the molasses fodder, Rivalry among 
there has come into existence considerable rivalry, the various manufadnrers 
inventors condemning their competitors, and in this way retard- *•' ""''^sses 
ing the progress that would otherwise have been made in the 
general introduction of the product on farms. The fact, how- 
ever, remains that cattle fed upon the product have their appe- 
tites stimulated and eat more straw and like products than they 
would otherwise. As soon as there was a possibility of making 
the molasses fodder very general, the selling price of the resi- 
duum went up, which necessarily meant a set-back as far as its 
general introduction was concerned. 

Since 1850 many arguments have been advanced that molasses 
contains all the nutritive elements that are requisite for feeding 
cattle. One of the first experiments that may be mentioned was 
that of Krocker, who substituted in sheep feeding one-third of 
a pound of molasses for one pound of hay per head and per 
diem. The excellent results that were obtained have been fol- 



forages. 



236 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Composition of 
molasses. 



Albumen not 

contained in 

molasses, 



Varied opinions 

respecting the 

value of amides. 



lowed by numerous experiments, which have been more and 
more convincing. In the meantime several failures have been 
recorded, but these were followed by successes. 

The average composition of molasses is about as follows: 

Molasses upon general principles may be considered as a pro- 
duct containing sugar that cannot be crystallized by any known 
method. Its composition is only then, to a reasonable extent, 
variable, and is about as follows: 

Water 20 per cent. Dry substances containing: Nitrogenous 
substances 10 per cent., sugar 50 per cent., non-nitrogenous 10 
per cent., salts 10 per cent. Molasses contains from 1 to 1^ per 
cent, nitrogen, sometimes more. 

According to Briem, molasses contains 8 per cent, of digestible 
protein. This proportion is apparently excessive, as molasses 
analyzed by Bej^er contained 1.47 per cent, of nitrogen, of which 
5.3 per cent, was protein, 29.3 per cent, of organic substances, 
such as betaine, glutamin and asparagin, and 48.3 per cent, of 
amide compounds. The remainder was not determined. 

Kiihn is responsible for the assertion that of 100 parts nitro- 
gen, 22.7 to 75.7, or an average of 34.4 per cent., are amides. 

One of the interesting features of this residuum is that the 
albuminoids are entirely absent; but there are besides the 
amides, certain acid and nitrate combinations of these sub- 
stances. As a general thing, however, the nitrogen is found as 
an organic combination. 

From these discussions, a mistake is committed in asserting 
that the nitrogenous substances of molasses are only amides, 
which are said to have no nutritive value and which cannot 
consequently take the place of elements containing protein. 
Recent experiments have shown, as previously explained, that 
amides have nearly the same digestibility and nutritive power 
as carbohydrates. Previous investigations in this respect have 
shown that the theory that two-thirds of the nitrogen in 
molasses, which we considered as albumen, is erroneous. 

Authorities, such as Kiihn, Ramm and Momsen, assert that 
these nitric substances have a very doubtful nutritive value, 
certainly not greater than that of carbohydrates, as their use for 
flesh and milk production is infinitesimally small. They have 



BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MOLASSES FEEDING. 237 

neither the chemical composition nor the action upon the organ- 
ism that is possessed by albnmen. They are mainly thrown 
out in the urine. 

Weiske and Schulze declare that they are without nutritive 
value and are simply acid amides; hence it is argued that no 
allowance should be made for them in the calculation of a ration. 

Along with the amides, molasses contains from 40 per cent. Substances other 
to 46 per cent, of sugar, besides which we may add 16 |)er cent, than amides and 
of non-nitrogenous substances, meaning those which are not their influence, 
precipitated by lime during defecation. 

Molassic salts are mainly carbonate of potassium and sodium, 
and also chlorids. They contain also lime, sulphuric acid and 
a small percentage of phosphate. 

A certain nutritive value must be placed upon the non-sugar 
of molasses, as it has the property of exciting digestion and 
facilitating certain biological phenomena, such as the produc- 
tion of fatty substances and increasing the percentage of dry 
matter in milk. This property, attributed to nitrogenous sub- 
stances and the salts of molasses, cannot be obtained by the use 
of salt alone. It is mainly this inexplicable property that con- 
stitutes the real value of molasses; consequently, one cannot 
deny that the nitrogenous substances of molasses have a certain 
nutritive value and other special actions which in no way depre- 
ciate the market value of the residuum. Even if we may make 
no allowance for the nitrogenous substances of molasses, its nu- 
tritive value is always greater than its market valuation. 

Notwithstanding the great variations that have been found in Beneficial effects 
the composition of molasses, up to the present time no instances of molasses 
have been recorded of any toxic effects that have followed from ^^^^'m- 
molasses feeding; but it has very correctly been noticed that a 
certain diarrhoea is apt to follow, due to the organic salts it con- 
tains. This is the outcome of an excessive use of this residuum 
for feeding purposes, and it is to be noticed that an excess of 
any feed would have the same effect. Consequently the farmer 
has every advantage in keeping the molasses percentage of a 
ration within the limits of a standard, just as is done with every 
other substance entering into its composition. 

The salts contained in molasses, far from being objectionable, 
are on the contrary rather an advantage. 



238 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Physiological 
action of 
sugar and 

hydrocarbons. 



The special nourishing value of molasses must be attributed 
to the percentage of its extractive elements, Avhich, when com- 
pared Avith its caloric power, is very high, and demands an 
almost insignificant physiological work; thus sugar has an 
important value, as compared with all other hydrocarbons — 
being soluble in water, it does not necessarily demand the 
action of the gastric juices or the expenditure of latent forces of 
the organism for its assimilation. 

Experiments have shown that sugar added to forages is with- 
out doubt an excellent, healthy and economical substance, 
producing at the same time flesh and fat. It furnishes, fur- 
thermore, the requisite caloric for the animal, and materially 
assists in the production of mechanical energy. Sugar-molasses 
possesses greater activity than sugar alone. Many investiga- 
tions show that animals fed with molasses and the same quan- 
tity of sugar have always given better results than when fed 
with molasses only. 

One need only compare the enormous benefit that man de- 
rives from eating sugar to realize the possible fattening results 
to be expected from feeding this substance to cattle. Throwing 
aside the nitrogenous value of the molasses constituents in 
estimating the commercial money value of the residuum, and 
considering only the hydrocarbons it contains, one realizes that 
it in reality has a greater money value than has hitherto been 
admitted; and all facts taken into consideration, when com- 
pared with barley, rice, various brans of wheat, etc., it holds 
its own. 

Of all the carbohydrates sugar may be considered the most 
valuable. Being soluble in water, it does not demand any 
special digestive action, which is within itself a saving for the 
vital energy of the organism. Furthermore, it is pointed out 
that sugar, being diffusible, soon passes, by osmosis, through 
the intestinal tubes, while other non-nitrogenous extractive 
elements, such as starch, pentosanes, etc., must undergo many 
modifications, lasting for a considerable time, before assimila- 
tion is possible. 

The osmotic action of a sugar solution is very rapid, so much 
so that the new theories claim that its complete oxygenation is 



MILCH COW FEEDING WITH MOLASSES. 239 

impossible. The blood not being able to supply the oxygen 
necessary for its transformation, there results a stored-up energy 
for subsequent tissue and fat formation. 

The other carbohydrates, under the influence of the gastric 
juice and other active principles secreted by the stomach, intes- 
tinal canal, etc., are transformed into sugar only after an 
interval of time, under which circumstances it frec[uently hap- 
pens that the sugar thus formed is entirely consumed by the 
combustion of the body, and but little remains for tissue forma- 
tion. Killner advances the theory that there are always certain 
carbohydrates very difficult to digest, and they, with starch, 
help the formation of methane in the intestines. No such 
transformations occur with sugar, and its purpose consequently 
is almost entirely one of organic production. Several agrono- 
mists point out that this fact alone gives sugar an advantage 
over all other carbohydrates for fat formation, and hence its 
value for cattle-feeding, either as it is found in molasses or in 
other forms that the farmers have at their disposal. 

Experience shows that it is desirable to commence the feed- Manner of 
ing with molasses in small quantities, gradually increasing the feeding, 
amounts; we may admit about one-quarter of the ultimate 
ration as a beginning. Even under these circumstances certain 
physical organic difficulties at first occur; but there is no reason 
for alarm, as they subsequently disappear. Among the numer- 
ous precautionary measures to be taken in feeding molasses, 
mention may be made of avoiding the exceptional molasses 
which contains excessive saline elements. The residuum from 
sugar refineries or factories where the sugar is largely ex- 
tracted demands special attention, and hence in certain cases 
it may be found desirable to have made an ash estimation of 
the molasses that is to be used for feeding purposes. While 
the nitrogen percentage of the dry matter of regular molasses 
is 2.16, this percentage falls to 0.69 in molasses from the 
strontia process. 

In certain cases there has followed a slight decrease in weight ivijich cow 
upon feeding molasses to milch cows, but the fact that the flow feeding with 
of milk has been increased must not be overlooked. Without molasses, 
doubt the product has an important action upon the milk 



240 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, 

secreting glands, and this secreting influence results in an in- 
creased flow of milk, which continues for several days after the 
molasses ration has ceased to be fed. There then follows a 
gradual decrease, which in certain cases falls below the normal. 
Hoppe attiibutes this exciting influence to the amides, such as 
asparagin, contained in the molasses; Ramm, on the other 
hand, at one time declared that the stimulation must be attrib- 
uted to the salts of the molasses, but he has of late changed his 
opinion. 

The relative amount of fatty substances contained in the milk 
of molasses-fed cows decreases during the period that this special 
fodder is placed at their disposal, but its absolute quantity in- 
creases. Allowance is always made for the absence of fatty 
constituents of molasses, by giving to the animals larger 
amounts of fatty substances, such as oil cake. 

The milch cows in Kamm's investigations at first refused a 
ration consisting of equal parts of molasses and palm oil meal, 
but the same animals ate this forage when, later, the amount of 
molasses was lessened. When one compares the results ob- 
tained by molasses and other constituents, there can be no 
doubt that the resulting milk contains a heavier percentage of 
fatty and dry substances with molasses than is realized with 
other feeding stuffs. The quantity of milk is also considerably 
increased. 

Holbrung and Kaiser fed to milch cows one kilo of molasses 
in one experiment, and 2 kilos per diem in another. This was 
either diluted in water, or represented a substitute for 2 kilos of 
bran. With the exception of one special case, the milk secre- 
tion was notably increased. 

Molasses is apparently favorable to the production of milk, 
not only on account of the nutritive elements it contains, but 
also owing to the exciting action, due probably to the amide 
constituents, thereby causing an increase in the amount of milk 
per diem under certain conditions. With 2 to 4 per cent. 
molasses the fatty substances remain almost stationary; but as 
soon as 5 kilos per head are fed per diem there is to be noticed 
a decrease in the fatty substances, which frequently attain 0.5 
per cent., hence the importance of adhering to a certain standard 



MOLASSES FOR FEEDING HORSES. 241 

within reasonable limits. Without doubt, as before stated, the 
milk is of an exceptional quality. 

As regards the evil effects that have resulted to milch cows 
receiving molasses in their daily rations during gestation, this 
is difficult to explain, and possibly the feeder was more at fault 
than the animal fed. Then again, the nature of the molasses 
may have been responsible, and among the authorities who 
argue from this basis, we may mention Hoppe, who says that 
the composition of molasses plays a most important role. He 
justly declares that molasses having become even slightly 
soured should never be used. 

Among the interesting theories as regards the physiological 
influences of molasses, may be mentioned the excessive increase 
of the urine secretion of milch cows, which has a pernicious in- 
fluence upon the heart and kidneys. 

The protein percentage of milk does not appear to be influ- 
enced. This would show that molasses causes slight increase 
in protein, which would, in a measure, explain why the ani- 
mals fed lose in weight. The relative amount of dry substances 
is slightly decreased, but to this very little importance need be 
attached, as is shown by the Fleischmann formula for milk 
analysis. The absorption of molasses increases the acidity of 
milk— especially the evening milk. Such milk will coagulate 
spontaneously after three or four days, while milk from cows 
that have not been fed with molasses will coagulate only after 
seven or eight days. 

Experiments in the fermentation of milk by the Walter and 
Gerber method were less favorable with the product from 
molasses-fed cows than with normal milk; but these results are 
far from forcing the conclusion that the milk in question is un- 
healthy. The quality of the butter is not influenced. The 
data relating to this analysis show it to be normal, only the 
butter is a little harder and its melting-point is a few degrees 
Centigrade higher than other butters. There have been noticed 
no perceptible differences in the taste of the two products. 

Experiments in feeding residuum molasses to horses were con- Molasses for 
ducted by L. Grandeau, who has published an account of same, feeding horses. 
It is interesting to note in a general way what he says respect- 
16 



242 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

ing the role residuum molasses could play in feeding not only 
horses, but cattle in general. Regular weighings at regular 
hours made known each day the live weight of the horses, 
during rest, when working and after work. The horses drank 
at their discretion at given hours, and the water drunk was 
accurately measured. The weight and the composition of the 
rations fed were accurately determined, as was also the 
quantity of food not eaten. Under these circumstances, what 
each horse had absorbed was known with mathematical preci- 
sion. The droppings were collected with great care and imme- 
diately analyzed. If out of 100 grams of nitrogenous substances 
fed, 30 grams were found in the urine and excrements, the 
co-efficient of nitric elements was then said to be 70, this same 
plan being adopted for all other substances of which the ration 
consisted. It was found that sugar had the highest coefficient 
of digestibility under whatever form it was found or fed in 
the fodder; the coefficient in this case was 100, meaning that 
all the sugar had been digested by the animal — none was to be 
found in the droppings. It is interesting to note that for horses 
of 410 kilos [902 lbs.] live weight the nitric elimination per 
diem through the hair, perspiration, etc., amounted to about 
2.5 grams per diem. This item is mentioned simply to show 
with what care these experiments were conducted. The daily 
ambient temperature and conditions of moisture, rain, etc., 
influencing the experiment were allowed for, and morning and 
night the temperature of each horse was taken. We cBnnot in 
this writing enter into other details; suffice it to say that when 
the horses were working, they received, beside their regular 
daily rations, which consisted of straw and oil cake, 2.5 kilos of 
Vaury's molasses preparation. This represented a little more 
than one kilo of molasses or 450 grams of sugar. The result of 
the experiments was as follows: 



MOLASSES FOR FEEDING HOESES. 243 

Work Performed by Horses, Molasses Being Fed (Grandeau). 



Work done. 


Empty wagon. 


Wagon containing two 

persons of 70 kilos 

each. 


Velocity per hour 


10.38 kilometers. 


9.614 kilometer. 




'>4S .Sq? b in 


254 649 k m 


Duration of the work 


4. 23 hours. 


4.59 hours. 


Distance traveled 


46.431 kilometers. 


47.912 kilometer. 


Average traction 


23. 494 kilos. 


27 kilos. 


Total average work 


1,089,684 k. m. 


1,269,000 



The amount of water drunk was about three liters per kilo of 
dry substance of the ration, amounting to a fraction less than 
that taken with rations without sugar. Contrary to the 
general supposition, sugar does not increase the thirst of horses. 
These figures speak for themselves and show that there are 
great advantages to be gained by feeding molasses to horses 
during active work. 

Jorss has fed horses with forages consisting of palm oil meal 
and molasses. The animals suffered from colics and presented 
an unhealthy appearance. He substituted 3 lbs. of cereal 
waste for 3 lbs. of this molasses combination, and he realized a 
considerable profit when the accounts of the year were balanced. 
The horses were in an excellent condition under this regimen. 

Respecting molasses feeding, successful experiments may be 
cited in which broken down horses have been brought to their 
normal condition by feeding them with chopped straw thor- 
oughly moistened with a solution consisting of 5 quarts of 
molasses and 25 gallons of water. This mixture was prepared 
24 hours in advance of feeding, and to it was added some well- 
cooked cereal. In certain sections of Germany molasses is fed 
to the horses of the omnibus company on a very extended scale. 
The fact is, this molasses feeding to horses is also coming very 
much into vogue in the German army, and it is only a question 
of time before it will become generally adopted. In France, 



244 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

also, the question is being seriously considered, and recent ex- 
periments apparently show that a satisfactory ration should 
consist of 15.4 lbs. oats, 11 lbs. clover hay, 11 lbs. wheat straw. 
During the first few days, about one pound molasses was diluted 
in water and took the place of one pound oats. This was con- 
stantly increased, until reaching the sixth day, when 2.2 lbs. 
molasses were used and 13.2 lbs. oats, instead of 15.4 lbs., as 
per regular ration without molasses addition. The results ob- 
tained were in every way satisfactor}' — there was a slight in- 
crease in the horses' weight, without in any way diminishing 
their power for work. 

The molasses fodders are decidedly advantageous, especially 
for working horses, and Kunze claims that molasses, when 
properly used, will give them great vigor during excessive work- 
ing. It will quicken their appetite, even in case of animals 
that are poor feeders. One may feed 1.5 to 2.5 kilos per diem, 
which means 1.2 to 1.9 kilos of molasses. The hair of the 
animals fed retains its glossy hue, and their general health gives 
reason to believe that the product is to be highly recommended 
in every respect. 
Sheep feeding Albert and Ramm have obtained excellent results with sheep, 
with molasses. ^^^ ^-^^ health of the animals being fed has remained quite sat- 
isfactory by feeding 3.6 per cent, of the animal's live weight 
combined with barley. Greater amounts, such as 4.8 per cent, 
to 5 per cent., brought about some digestive complications. 
There has never been noticed the slightest increase in wool pro- 
duction. 

For sheep being fattened one may give a ration in which 
there are 250 grams molasses. This feed should never be used 
for these animals during the period of gestation. 

Sheep thrive on molasses, but there is one objection to 
molasses feeding in the case of sheep, which is that the wool 
becomes soiled; this, however, can be thoroughly remedied by 
washing. 
Steer feeding It is interesting to observe which live stock is the most 
with molasses, benefited by this molasses feeding. For steers being fattened 
during the summer, 4 kilos per 1,000 kilos live weight are suffi- 
cient, while in winter 6 kilos are necessary. When this limit 



STEER FEEDING WITH MOLASSES. 245 

is reached, certain softening of the bony structure is noticeable, 
which, according to several leading authorities, is to be attrib- 
uted solely to molasses, and the explanation given is its low 
percentage in phosphate of lime and also the formation of cer- 
tain acids in the digestive tubes, due to the sugar it contains. 
This acidity decreases the alkalinity of the blood, which then 
dissolves the calcic phosphate. 

This difficulty may be overcome by adding 50 grams of pre- 
cipitated phosphate, as suggested by Maercker. Experience 
shows that since this product has been used there has not been 
a single instance of bone softening; consequently, when 4 kilos 
of molasses are given to a full-grown ox, it is desirable to add 
to the ration at least 100 grams of calcic phosphate per 1,000 
kilos live weight. 

Vibrans has obtained excellent results with working oxen, 
and claims that no other feeding substances can take the place 
of molasses. His manner of feeding is to chop hay very fine, 
combine it with straw, and sprinkle the whole with molasses. 
Concentrates are thrown over this and subsequently mixed. 

At the Hohenau sugar factory (Germany) they have been 
feeding these molasses forages to oxen for more than twenty 
years. During the first month IJ kilos per head and per diem 
are fed, and the following months 2 kilos of molasses are mixed 
with cossettes in the daily ration. It is recorded that the 
animals had a better appetite and were rapidly fattened. From 
what has just been said, we may conclude that steers and oxen 
are very much benefited by this molasses feeding. 

A question that is open to much discussion is that of influ- 
ence of molasses combinations upon the ultimate quality of the 
meat. Experiments were made at Leipzig (Germany) upon 
steers fattened at Lauchstadt with the following ration for the 
first group: 5 kilos hay, 8 kilos straw, 8 kilos dried cossettes, 6 
kilos peat molasses, 6 kilos bran, and 3 kilos cotton-seed meal. 
The second group received 5 kilos hay, 8 kilos straw, 8 kilos 
dried cossettes, 12 kilos bran-molasses combination, and 3 kilos 
cotton-seed meal. The cattle were subsequently slaughtered 
and their meat was pronounced of first-class quality. 

On a French farm visited by the writer, the ration for steers 



246 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

weighing 320 to 350 kilos was 10 kilos wheat middlings, 3 kilos 
molasses, 3 kilos crushed barley and 1 kilo oil cake. After fifty 
days' feeding the steers were in an excellent condition. There 
can be no doubt as to the possibility of substituting oil cake for 
residuum cossettes. but it must be done gradually. 
Pig feeding Very little data has been published respecting experiments in 
with molasses, pjg feg(jii^g^ ^^t those that are known may, upon general 
principles, be considered . favorable. For example, Jorss 
records that after seven days feeding of two pigs with 2 kilos of 
molasses per diem there followed an increase of weight corre- 
sponding to 835 grams per diem on an average. This authority 
is an advocate of liquid molasses, and recommends it in this 
form for pigs. It must be diluted with two to three times its 
volume of hot water, to which is added some cereal waste, the 
whole being left in a heap in that steeping condition for 24 hours. 

Experience shows that it is not desirable to feed pigs with 
molasses until they weigh at least 50 kilos. When this weight 
is reached one ma}^ feed 1 per cent, of their, weight of this pro- 
duct. Sows, on the other hand, should not be allowed more 
than 0.5 per cent. Molasses produces an excellent meat when 
fed at the same time as corn, and under no circumstances should 
it ever be lacking in a pig-feeding establishment. However, 
certain precautions are necessary so as not to push this quantity 
to an excess, as in reaching a limit of 3 per cent, there are dan- 
gers of intestinal complications, which means an impossibility 
of sausage-making. 

According to Miesol and Bersch, the non-sugar of molasses 
takes a great part in the phenomenon of assimilation, as experi- 
ments with 1 kilo of molasses upon pigs showed when com- 
pared with sugar and starch fed under like circumstances. 
Both the meat and the fat were of excellent quality. 

Fay and Frederikson have fed pigs with skimmed milk and 
beaten milk, and likewise milk waste. As soon as the animals 
reach 25 kilos in weight the forage consisted of barley, corn, 
pollen, oil meal, one-third flour, and two-thirds molasses. 
The amount of forage molasses fed was increased so as to con- 
stitute one-third, one-half, or even two-thirds of the ration, but 
experience showed that the increase of weight was not propor- 
tional to the increase of the amount of molasses fed. 



PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF MOLASSES FEEDING. 247 

Experiments seem to show that molasses will not take the 
place of grain in feeding. However, the quality of the fat and 
of the meat of the pigs increased very materially under molasses 
feeding. 

As a general thing the animals increased in weight in a very 
marked degree. Experiments furthermore appeared to show 
that molasses contributed to the excellency and superiority of 
the resulting hams. 

For a long time past it has been pointed out that molasses Pernicious effects 
feeding was generally followed by miscarriage in the case of of molasses 
pregnant cows, and the mortality among calves fed with fading, 
molasses was exceptionally high. Efforts were made to deter- 
mine the reason, and Friske declared that it was the outcome of 
a special acidity that calves brought with them when born. 
Kopisch maintained that the milk soured in the stomach of 
young calves, and was changed into cheese. He even went so 
far as to feed the young animals with milk of lime to dissolve 
this cheese. But Lachau showed that the death rate was 
caused by the infection of the environment, and that it was 
sufficient to change the locality in order to decrease this death 
rate. It may, however, be attributed to a decrease in the per- 
centage of molasses in the ration. It has been noticed that the 
most difficult problem to overcome was to convince the breeder 
that exaggerated quantities of molasses were harmful — the 
farmer always feeds this residuum in excess of what should be 
given. Even 5 kilos per head, Ramm declares, is an exagger- 
ated allowance for milch cows. Certain complications, such as 
fever and tremblings, have followed when this amount has been 
exceeded, and even when reaching this limit great care is neces- 
sary, for several instances are_on record where certain signs of 
weakness were apparent; the bony structure underwent some 
changes which were attributed to molasses, and which were 
explained bj' the small percentage of phosphoric acid and lime 
the residuum contains, and the formation of certain acids in the 
digestive canal. 

It was suggested by Maercker that 50 grams of precipitated 
phosphates per head and per diem be added to the ration, and 
since the advice was put into practice there has never been a 



248 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC, 

complaint about any weakness resulting from the molasses- 
cossette feeding. Some agronomists declare that it is advis- 
able, when feeding more than 4 lbs. molasses (per 1000 lbs. 
live weight) per diem, to add 100 grams of a basic phosphate 
to the ration per 1000 lbs. live weight of full-grown oxen. 

Molasses has an exciting influence on the organism of animals 
in general. The appetite is increased for the consumption of 
other fodders, and in this way it renders great service in the 
case of animals that decline to eat, as often in cases of moment- 
ary sickness thej^ will eat molasses forage when they will refuse 
everything else. 

As regards the nutritive value of molasses, it is difficult to 
Nutritive value obtain exact data. It has been compared with oil cake from 
and variations various sources. Further on its effects will be shown. 

Its action upon animals in general has resulted in certain 

complications, which, as a rule, have been the outcome of 

faulty modes of its usage. This action has generally been 

attributed to the alkaline salts producing undoubted purgative 

effects. If we may rely upon the observations of Hoppe, we 

should consider the alkaline saccharates responsible, and above 

all the potassic saccharates, rather than the potassic salts, 

properly speaking. Diarrhoea has been obviated by estimating 

exactly the quantity of molasses fed, and giving to the animals 

other suitable feeds at the same time. 

Evident beneficial Experience further shows that molasses-fed animals have an 

effects. excellent appearance; this is especially so in the case of horses. 

The horses' coats, under these conditions, have a brilliant hue. 

Molasses has, furthermore, a special action upon horses; it 

cures colics permanently. 

Practical com- Ii^ certain districts of northern France recently visited by the 

parative experi- writer, molasses has been given some practical tests in horse 

ments in ^nd cattle feeding. The horses had previously been fed with 

molasses feeding 2g 4 i|jg_ of oats per diem; this w^as worth 41 cents. At the 

present time each horse consumes 22 lbs. of oats, worth 34 

cents, and 6.6 lbs. of molasses, worth about 4.8 cents, which 

means a saving of about two cents per diem upon each animal 

fed; besides which it was noticed that horses under the molasses 

ration were in a far better condition, had better appetites and 



MOLASSES FEEDING IN FRANCE. 249 

were entirely free from intestinal complications. The molasses 
is always combined with two or three times its volume of water. 

In fattening oxen it was found that molasses offered an 
economy of 1|- cents per diem as compared with other rations. 
The 13 oxen fed with pulp and molasses gave a total weight of 
14,630 lbs.; 13 other oxen fed upon residuum pulps and oil 
cake, weighed 22 lbs. more; this was after first weighing. But 
when weighed twenty-two clays later, it was found that the 
molasses-fed had gained 143 lbs. over the others, the weight of 
residuum pulp fed in both cases having been the same. The 
method of feeding the molasses offers special interest. The 
residuum molasses was simply poured on the cossettes prior to 
each feeding, three times a day. When chopped straw was 
mixed with this ration, the cattle did not eat it with the same 
avidity as they did the molasses and cossettes. It is important 
also to note that in direct contradiction to what is generally sup- 
posed, the excrement of oxen fed upon molasses is not more 
liquid than when fed upon other fodders. Butchers of the 
locality had no hesitation in declaring that the resulting meat 
was equal in every way to that obtained with the standard 
rations. 

The above figures are only approximate, and it is important 
to pass in review some experiments made at Berthonval 
(France). In every case there were two lots of animals, one 
lot receiving the molasses ration and the other the regular 
ration, such as adopted on most of the leading farms. The 
molasses was used in two ways, either as an addition to a ration 
or as a substitute of some element. When fed to sheep under 
the first condition, the daily ration consisted of 10 lbs. of beet 
cossettes, combined with chopped straw, 1.5 lbs. cotton oil cake, 
0.7 lbs. molasses. The mixture was made 24 hours before 
feeding, so that there followed a slight fermentation, which 
added to its digestibility and resulted in its being eaten with 
greater avidity. After 40 days' feeding, the average daily in- 
crease in weight was 7.3 ounces for sheep fed with molasses 
added to the ration, and 5.0 ounces increase with regular ration. 
In the second experiment the oil cake was replaced by one 
pound of molasses. Under these circumstances the ration had 



250 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

the same money value at the locality where the experiment was 
made. The increase per diem for molasses-fed sheep, without 
oil cake, was 6 ounces, and 5.5 ounces with oil cake. Experi- 
ments in feeding heifers were also interesting. The ration con- 
sisted of 5.5 lbs. clover, 5.5 lbs. oat straw, 35 lbs. beets cut 
into slices, 1.8 lbs. oil cake. The first lot of heifers received 
1.5 lbs, of diluted molasses combined with the cossettes 24 
hours before feeding. In this case the daily increase of weight 
was 2 lbs. 4 ounces, as compared with 1 lb. 12 ounces on the 
regular ration. In France, where these experiments were made, 
considerable money profit resulted from the advantages the 
molasses offered. 

Experiments having for their object the determination of the 
influence of molasses upon the flow of milk are also most inter- 
esting. Notwithstanding the difficult}^ of the experiment, it 
was found that molasses-fed cows gave J-pint more milk per 
diem. 
Experiments- in The comparative experiments made at Lauchstadt (Ger- 
Germany. j-nany) were with swine. The first ration consisted of 60 lbs. 
potatoes, 35 quarts milk skimmings. 17.7 lbs. barley balls per 
1000 lbs. live weight; this corresponds to 5 lbs. protein sub- 
stances, 28 lbs. non-nitric substances. The daily increase in 
weight was a fraction more than a pound. The second ration 
consisted of 60 lbs. potatoes, 35 quarts of milk skimmings 
(mixed with equal parts of barley balls and third-grade sugar), 
17.7 lbs. barley balls and 12 lbs. sugar per 1000 lbs. live weight. 
In this case the daily increase was 2 lbs. The pigs experi- 
mented with weighed 110 lbs. to 121 lbs. The pigs were sold 
at 10 cents a pound, which means that the sugar used at calcu- 
lations made was worth 5 cents a pound during the first part of 
the experiments, and if the feeding continued its worth would 
be reduced 2.5 cents a pound, which means considerable money 
for a low-grade product. Upon the market no complaint was 
made as regards the quality of the meat; on the contrary, 
butchers declared that the hams, etc., were of an excellent 
quality. During the feeding it was noticed that the pigs were 
ver}^ thirsty, and an important essential for the success was that 
an ample supply of water be placed at their disposal. It is also 



VARIED MOLASSES COMBINATIONS. 



251 



important not to give salt during the feeding, as the residuum 
molasses contains sufficient for all emergencies. About 25 
grams of precipitated chalk and 25 grams of phosphate of lime 
are added to the ration each day. 

Recently it has been proposed to make a mixture of 40 parts Varied molasses 
corn-meal cake and 60 parts molasses. This special oil cake is combinations, 
very rich in protein, and naturall}^ constitutes a valuable nutri- 
ent. It has since been proposed to mix 75 parts molasses and 
25 parts peat. In France this molasses combination costs 
about $1.60 per 100 kilos (about 78 cents per 100 lbs). 

Three popular combinations are as follows: (1) 2 parts 
molasses; ^ part wheat bran; IJ parts flour. (2) 2 parts 
molasses; 3 parts malt sprouts. (3) 2 parts molasses; 3 parts 
rice flour. 

• As regards the last mixture^ it is interesting to call attention 
to the fact that according to Briem, rice flour is not suitable for 
the preparation of a molasses forage. For horses he recom- 
mends especially two parts molasses, three parts oat waste; for 
swine, two parts molasses and two parts lentil waste. 

Weiske manufactures a forage containing ^ molasses, ^ wheat 
bran, ^ fish powder. Under these circumstances he obtained a 
forage rich in nitrogenous substances and possessing a heavy 
percentage of calcic phosphate. 

As a synopsis of the action of all the forages named, one need 
only pass in review the experiments of Gerland with molasses 
forages, which had the following compositions: 

Molasses Forages (Gerland). 



Molasses, 50 p. 
Palm oil cake, 50 p. 



Molasses, 50 p. 
Bran, 50 p. 



Molasses, 50 p. 
Distiller's mash,50p. 



Molasses, 80 p. 
Peat, 20 p. 



Molasses, 40 p. 
Corn sprouts,40 p. 



The experiments were preceded for fifteen days by a prepara- 
tory feeding, so as to accustom the animals, little by little, to 
the standard combination upon which they were to live during 
the period of the experiment. The experiment proper lasted 
ten days. The sheep were fed three times a day. They re- 
ceived first an intensive forage, then a ligneous forage with the 
remains of the intensive forage. In the morning water was 



252 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

allowed at will, and during the first days they were permitted 
to run around the stable for a quarter of an hour. All these 
rations are calculated upon a basis of 1,000 kilos live weight. 
The increase in weight per individual during the ten days with 
different combinations varied from to 0.7 kilos. 

The preparations experimented with were accepted by the 
animals fed with one exception, and this was possibly due to 
the fact that it contained cacao v^^astes, which are bitter. 
Another ration resulted in a violent diarrhoea. It contained 
4.8 kilos of molasses for 1,000 kilos live weight, while the 
others, of which the effects were not unfavorable, contained 
only 4 kilos of molasses. With this molasses forage sheep were 
in a most excited condition, which is contrary to the obser- 
vations of Ramm, who has never been able to notice an unfavor- 
able influence upon the animal or its wool from molasses feeding. 

The increase of weight caused by a kilo of sugar consumed 
represents in value 54 pfennigs (about 5 cents per lb.), but 
sugar in the molasses is only worth 14 pfennigs (about 1|- cents). 
Consequently the feeding with molasses may be considered very 
lucrative, while feeding with sugar is supposed to be quite the 
contrary. 
Desirable limits The quantity of molasses it is possible to feed depends partly 
in molasses upon the suguar it contains. The salt constituents of such 
feeding. molasses do not all possess the same action, and are not con- 
tained in all molasses in the same proportion. Hoppe has 
noticed that acid molasses gives far better results in feeding 
steers than when the residuum is alkaline. The forage added 
to the molasses during feeding also has an important influence 
and brings about very varied results. The general nature of the 
animal fed is also a factor to be taken into consideration. 

Herewith are the quantities recommended b}' some authori- 
ties: 



MONEY VALUE OF MOLASSES. 



253 



Varying Molasses Rations for Different Animals. 



Animals fed. 



Working oxen per 1000 kilos live weight. . 
Growing steers per 1000 kilos live weight. . 

Milch cows per 1000 lbs. live weight 

Milch cows, during gestation, per 1000 \ 
lbs. live weight J 

Growing sheep per 1000 lbs. live weight. . . 

Lambs per 1000 lbs. live weight 

Full grown heavy sheep 

Horses 



Briem. 



3 to 4 kilos. 

4 to 6 kilos. 

2% lbs. 

>^lb9. 

>^lbs. 
Klbs. 



r Commence with 2 lbs. then 
1 33^ to 4 lbs. 

/Commence with 2 lbs. then 
t 23^ to 4% lbs. 

(■Commence with J^ lb. then 
\ J^lb. 

f Commence with 2 lbs. then 
\ 4 lbs. 

For swine commence with 34 kiio per 1000 kilos live weight and gradually increase to 
1 kilo. 



Schende (Germany) sugar 
factory. 



The selection of feeds to be given at the same time Avith 
molasses should be made with care, alwa37s allowing for the 
special properties of each of them, to say nothing of their market 
prices. 

Making allowance for their price upon the market and their 
nutrients, they may be classified as follows: molasses and palin 
oil cake, wheat bran and molasses, distillers' waste and 
molasses, peat and molasses, corn sprouts and molasses, cos- 
settes and molasses, and finally, but far down in the scale, is 
sugar from the first strike of the pan. 

It is for the breeder to determine from experience what com- 
bination is best suited to his animals. Opinions differ very 
much as to the manner of absorbing the molasses and the in- 
gredients that are to be used for this purpose. 

If the question is considered on a mathematical basis, taking Money value of 
existing prices of fodders and their unit value based upon the molasses, 
valuable nutritive elements they contain, it is shown that in 
France molasses would have to sell at $14.40 per ton, to actually 
cost more than rice flour, and even then it would be possible 
for the residuum to compare favorably, dollar for dollar, with 
wheat and rye brans. Prof. Grandeau says, even admitting 
both costs to be the same, that molosses has within itself a 
superiority for feeding purposes, as the non-nitrogenous ele- 
ments, as previousl}^ explained, are superior, owing to the high 
percentage of sugar entering into their composition. It is for 



254 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

the farmer of each locaHty, either in California, Nebraska or 
elsewhere, to determine just how it may be to his pecuniary ad- 
vantage to carry the residuum from factory to the farm. 
Classification of Molasses may be used for feeding purposes in several differ- 
molasses feeds, gj^^^ manners: (A) In its raw state; (B) Combined with dried 
or pressed cossettes; (C) Combined with some absorbent such 
as peat, bran, etc.; (D) Combined with blood, (E) In various 
combinations baked in an oven, and (F) Bread molasses. 
Diluted and com- Molasses may be fed to cattle in two forms: either in a liquid 
bined molasses gtate or mixed with a feed. They both have certain advantages 
or ceding. ^^ ^^^^^i gg disadvantages, and it is for the farmer to determine 
his preference. Molasses may be diluted in water and fed as a 
drink; or it may be sprinkled over a forage such as chopped 
straw. Molasses is not readily dissolved in cold water, and 
therefore solution is effected mainly in hot water. For dilution, 
warm water may be used, either with or without steam, and 
after being carefully measured, it is emptied into the feeding 
trough. 

It has been proposed, in order to avoid the use of warm 
water, that the molasses be placed in a small bag, and that this 
be suspended at night in the trough from which the animals 
drink. The molasses will gradually pass through the bag and 
will slowly ooze out in thin streams, which readily dilute at the 
bottom of the receptacle containing the water, it being sulEiicient 
to stir the liquid slightly in the morning in order to obtain a 
homogeneous solution. One may also dissolve molasses in dis- 
tillers' mash in cases where this special residuum is used in 
cattle feeding. 

The diluting of molasses is considered excellent, for the 
simple reason that the animals being fed become gradually 
accustomed to this new regimen. But while diluted molasses 
feeding may be economical, it is upon general principles a mis- 
take, and has many inconveniences. Its transportation- is both 
difficult and unpleasant. The mixing of same with feeds is 
also no easy operation, and a trough in which it is poured can 
be subsequently over-charged with micro-organisms of various 
kinds that ultimately cause sickness. 

Without doubt molasses residuum as it leaves the sugar 



MOLASSES FOR DIGESTIBLE FORAGE. 255 

factory would be very unpleasant, and consequently not accept- 
able to live stock in general. It is sticky in its nature and 
adheres to everything with which it comes in contact. All 
receptacles in which it is handled have to be washed with hot 
water before becoming properly cleaned, which offers no 
difficulty where the water and steam may be had ad libitum, 
but would prove a question of difficult solution for the smaller 
farmer. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the use of molasses preparations 
is becoming more and more general, it is apparently the direct 
manner of feeding, without preliminary mixing, that still con- 
tinues in vogue in Germany, Austria and Sweden. However, 
molasses combinations have, without doubt, great advantages, 
as they may be readily handled, and are moreover possessed of 
considerable keeping power. The use of molasses without 
mixing, in the long run, would cost more, and when taken 
alone there is always danger of diarrhoea; but there are many 
exceptions to this rule. 

Some years since it was claimed that it was" possible to form Diluted followed 
with molasses a readily digestible combination for live stock by concentrated 
feeding. Among the advantages claimed was that of over- ""'lasses for 
coming the diuretic and laxative effects of molasses, due tQ ^^g •'•a^stibie forage, 
excessive salt percentage. The feeds of the combination are 
submitted to a preliminary treatment. For example, when 
saw-dust is combined with molasses, before the object aimed at 
is realized a large quantity of herbs must be used, and in order 
that the bitter constituents contained in the herbs shall become 
active, the product is submitted to a sort of preliminary steeping 
in diluted molasses. It is claimed that whereas concentrated 
molasses or syrup may be considered antiseptic in its action and 
will consequently arrest fermentation, a diluted solution of 
molasses on the other hand will hasten fermentation. Conse- 
quently, as soon as herbs which contain the essential sour sub- 
stances are steeped in diluted molasses, there follows an acid 
fermentation, which tends to destroy the glycosides, at the same 
time liberating the active elements of the plants; now if this is 
followed by a concentrated molasses treatment, there will result 
specific advantages from a nutrient standpoint, during the 



256 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

action of digestion. The practical working of this mode con- 
sists in using an herb rich in glycosides, which is chopped up 
dry and moistened with a 1 per cent, solution of molasses. The 
mixture is left for several days at the ambient temperature, and 
2"\r to -g-Q concentrated molasses is added to it, which has been 
previously mixed with some fibrous substance, saw-dust, 
chopped straw, and finally with lime. 

During the first phases of fermentation, instead of using the 
sour herbs alone, 5 to 10 per cent, of saw-dust may be added to 
them before starting the fermentation with diluted molasses, 
which will then be unusually active. The main feature of this 
mode consists in bringing about a decomposition of the glyco- 
sides by fermentation through the intervention of diluted 
molasses. 

Proskowetz pours concentrated molasses over forages and then 
does the mixing with suitable pitch-forks. With this combina- 
tion he has fed li to 2 kilos of the residuum per diem to sixty 
steers, while fifty other steers were fed with the ordinary' rations. 
The experiment showed that there was an increase of one-fifth 
kilo per diem for the molasses-fed animals. 

Ramm undertook a very interesting series of investigations of 
feeding milch cows with liquid molasses. Twelve animals were 
fed with rations consisting of 10 kilos hay, 3 kilos wheat 
middlings, 50 kilos of forage beets, 4 kilos flour, and 8 kilos of 
molasses per diem per 1000 lbs. live weight. The molasses was 
heated to 70° C. and spread over the forage. The total was 
thoroughly mixed, and the product was eaten with relish. Ex- 
j)erience appears to prove that when a cow does not derive any 
benefit from this feed, there are no known means by which the 
animal may be accustomed to even diluted molasses. These 
experiments showed that this residuum was most excellent for 
the production of milk: its percentage of dry and fatty sub- 
stances increased, and the milk and butter Avere absolutely 
normal. 

It is interesting to note that the conclusions from these ex- 
periments were to a certain extent in contradiction to previous 
observations made by the leading agronomists, viz., when this 
molasses forage combination was fed to cows during gestation, 



MOLASSES FOR DIGESTIBLE FOKAGE. 257 

and even after the calf was born, no evil effects followed, either 
for the cows or for the calves. 

Hoppe discussing this question has declared that the health 
of the animals fed was most excellent, and no digestive compli- 
cations Avere noticed, even when seven months had elapsed 
from the time of pregnancy, and 5 kilos of liquid molasses were 
mixed with concentrates per 1000 kilos live weight. According 
to this authority the laxative action could not be attributed to 
the salts, but to the saccharates, and especially to saccharate of 
potassium. With the other cows fed, that were not undergoing 
this period, the result was that there was a simple increase of 
milk without augmentation of weight. On the other hand it 
is claimed that a milch cow fed with the molasses combination 
during gestation will subsec^uently not only give more milk, but 
will also increase in weight under this special residuum feeding. 
17 



CHAPTER IL 

Molasses Cossette Combinatioiis. 

Cossettes, fresh The cossette-m classes forage is most important for the sugar 
and dried, mixed inclustry. This feed is prepared in two ways, either by using 
with molasses for dried cossettes with the molasses, or moist cossettes as they 
cattle feeding, jpf^yg ^he presses, the combination in each case being heated. 

The first method is not practicable, because, as the molasses 
combines only with great difficulty with dried cossettes, the 
mixture is very difficult to realize without the use of a special 
machine for grinding a large portion of the cossettes. 

The dried cossettes, however, constitute an excellent combina- 
tion with molasses by mixing them in the proportion of from 5 
to 6 parts molasses for 100 parts of this dried product. The 
average composition of the combination is: Water 8.5, protein 
8.7, cellulose 14.0, fatty substances 0.3, non-nitrogenous 62.0, 
ash 6.6. 

Wusterhagen adds pressed cossettes to both hot and cold 
molasses and subsequently submits them to drying. It is 
rational to mix these two products in the same proportions as 
they are obtained at the factory. Under these conditions one 
obtains for 100 parts of dried cossettes six to seven parts of 
molasses, sometimes ten. Under all circumstances it is desir- 
able not to use an excess of molasses in order to prevent the 
combination from being sticky. Werner and Pfleiderer have a 
special apparatus for this mixing, which is heated by steam and 
in which dried cossettes may be combined with molasses under 
satisfactory conditions. 

This forage is now recognized as a staple commodity in Ger- 
many. Its average composition is about as follows: 

(258) 



MOLASSES AND DRIED COSSETTES IN COMBINATION. 259 

Per cent. 

Moisture 80.1 

Ash 6.47 

Fatty substances 0. 40 

Nitrogenous substances • 8.77 

Cellulose 17.61 

Non-nitrogenous 60.31 

Molasses and dried cossettes have a more favorable action 
upon the organism when considered from a general point of view 
than has molasses when fed separately; furthermore, owing to 
the more or less resisting texture of the residuum in question, 
the substances that fill the digestive canal have greater consist- 
ency, which is certainly an advantage, as it obviates all possi- 
bility of diarrhoea that molasses in a certain degree always 
creates. It would thus appear that molasses increases in cer- 
tain cases the assimilation of the nitrogenous substances of the 
cossettes, and one may notice, with this forage, an important 
augmentation in the weight of the animals to which it is fed. 

Natanson has attempted to prepare molasses cossettes in an Molasses 
entirely different way. While this method has never been cossette prtpar- 
practically accepted, it is, nevertheless, interesting to give it a ^*.'**" '" *''^'"' 
passing notice. Into the diffusors proper, containing the 
exhausted cossettes, molasses is introduced in a more or less 
diluted form. The sugar that it contains passes, by osmosis, 
into the interior of the cells of the cossettes and accumulates in 
increasing quantities. The operation is stopped when the 
excess of molasses in the cossettes is such that the compound 
contains 63.47 per cent, of carbohydrates, of which 41 per cent, 
is sacchaiose. According to Petermann these cossettes will 
keep for a period of six months without undergoing the slightest 
change. 

Strohmer says that a good mixture may be obtained with 2 Molasses and 
per cent, dried cossettes, 10 per cent, water, and one per cent, dried cossettes 
molasses heated to 40° C. After cooling and having remained '" coinbination. 
for several days in a cold environment, the product can be put 
in bags, or it may be pressed into cakes, the form in which 
many of the staple oil meals used in cattle feeding are often 
found on the market. In some cases it is found desirable to 



260 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 



grind the dried cossettes before mixing. Many of these dried 
cossettes and molasses combinations are patented. 

The preparations of dried cossettes and molasses mentioned 
above, correspond to the production of 2.5 residuum molasses 
after a sugar campaign. Herewith are the analyses of some 
molasses and dried cossette combinations, according to the best 
German authorities: 

Analyses of Molasses axd Dried Cossette Combinations. 



Water 

Nitrogenous substances 

Fatty substances 

Sugar 

Non-nitrogenous 

Cellulose 

Ash 

Silica 



Per cent. 

7.67 
*10.00 

0.85 
23.09 
39.33 
12.40 

6.37 

0.30 



Per cent. 

5.77 
t9.65 

0.70 
11.98 
49.17 
17.17 

5.42 

0.14 



Per cent. 

9.00 
i8.9 

0.35 
20.20 
39.25 
14.40 

7.60 

0.30 



Increase of 

weight from the 

start. 



Dried cossettes 

and molasses 

better than 

pressed 

cossettes and 

molasses. 



* six per cent, protein. 16.45 per cent, protein. % 5.65 per cent, protein. 

The dried cossettess and molasses constitute an excellent 
forage, and the only one, according to Ramm, which will give 
from the very start of its feeding, an increase in the weight of 
the animals fed. This is just the opposite result obtained with 
most beet-molasses forages, as during the early days of feeding 
there is generally an incomprehensible decrease in weight. 

A well-known expert declares that the molasses and dried 
cossettes never form gases in the intestinal canal, which are 
always to be dreaded with palm oil meal. 

The influence upon milk production is very considerable, and 
much more so than is that of liquid molasses feeding. 

The experience of Olschbauer, who undertook a series of 
comparative experiments with milch cows, one series being fed 
with molasses and dried cossettes and the other Avith pressed 
cossettes, demonstrated that the best results were obtained when 
the cossettes were dried, provided, however, that the residuum 
product could be had at a reasonable price. 

Satisfactory results have been obtained by mixing the pressed 
residuum cossettes with molasses before siloing; but this mode 
is not to be recommended on account of the excessive fermen- 
tation that is sure to follow. 



EARLY EXPERIMENES WITH PEAT MOLASSES FEEDING. 261 

Wagner attempted to overcome the action of potassic salts Early experi- 
upon the digestive system and at the same time give molasses |||^|'_J^^J^'^^^^^^^^^^ 
certain keeping qualities by mixing it with peat. 

Among the early practical experiments in the peat-molasses 
combinations may be mentioned those in Sallschutz (Austria) 
in 1895, which were the outcome of the exceptionally high sell- 
ing price of farinaceous products. The early mixtures consisted 
of molasses containing 48 per cent, sugar, to which was added 
oil meal. This proportion was later changed to 40 parts oil 
meal and 60 parts molasses. The addition of molasses to other 
feeds was abandoned after several experiments. The 60 per 
cent, molasses fodder had the following composition: Water 
21.4 per cent., nitrogenous substances 11.1, fatty substances 
0.7, non-nitrogenous 53.5, of which 28.8 per cent, is sugar, 6.7 
per cent, cellulose, and 6.9 per cent. ash. 

The peat-molasses combination became popular in 1896, 
Avhen 20 parts peat were combined with 80 parts molasses. 
This combination contained 38 to 40 per cent, sugar, and the 
product sold for 80 cents for 220 lbs. , or ^ cent per pound. 

The peat absorbs the molasses, so that the ultimate forage is 
very uniform. The acids of peat neutrahze the salts of molasses 
and render them harmless when fed. The peat used should be 
fine in texture and possess a very considerable absorbing power. 
This pulverized product can absorb, according to Schwartz, 
three or four times its weight of molasses without losing the ad- 
vantage of forming a combination that may be easily handled. 

Experience shows that for practical purposes the best results 
are obtained by mixing it with twice its weight of molasses. 
Under these circumstances one obtains, according to Weigmann, 
a forage having the following composition : 

Per cent. 

Water • 24.85 

Protein 8-34 

Fatty substances • 0-87 

Ash 7.54 

Cellulose • • 5. 80 

Non-nitrogenous 52. 60 

Dr. Albert says there follows a considerable increase in weight, 



262 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

much more than can be obtained with bran-molasses com- 
binations, and that it is, in every way, far superior to liquid 
molasses. 
Peat and In the investigations that were made at Lauchstadt, Ger- 

molasses better many, it was noticed that in a mixture with bran or peat, the 
than bran and molasses gave a better result than in its raw state, which was 
molasses, g^j^jg^-^^jy explained by its better sub-division. The advantages 
to be thus gained more than compensate for the expenses of its 
manipulation. 

The advantage of this forage is that it is gradually absorbed 
in the digestive canal and the constipating action of peat is thus 
counterbalanced. The influence of potassic salts is no longer 
felt. One would especially notice the advantages of these prop- 
erties if it were fed at the same time as beet leaves. 

Peat, thus absorbed, has the advantage of increasing three- 
fold the amount or quantity of molasses possible to be fed to 
live stock per diem. 
Possible intes- Some investigators declare that peat causes intestinal troubles, 
tinal complica- ^nd can, furthermore, owing to its power of absorbing mois- 
tions through ^^ bring about dangerous inflammation. The question is 
feeding frequently asked. Will intestinal complications not follow the 
feeding of peat, a product that is in reality indigestible? This 
has not proved to be the case, and very few complaints have 
been made. If four pounds of peat-molasses are fed, the quan- 
tity of the indigestible powder passing through the alimentary 
canal is only ^ lb. , which is so small that it need not be con- 
sidered. 

Doctor Albert has made post-mortem examinations of animals 
fed upon this peat-molasses combination up to limits of 4 kilos 
per diem, and declared that these assertions are very much 
exaggerated, as he has been unable to trace the shghtest 
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines. He 
has, moreover, been unable to find any peat deposits in the 
intestines. 

According to Jorss, it is precisely to the peat's power of ab- 
sorbing moisture that the advantages of this fodder are due. 
The experiments of Albert have only demonstrated, in a prac- 
tical manner, the advantages of this forage, and it is now being 



DIGESTIBILITY OF PEAT. 263 

used with great success in the cavah-y of Germany, Austria, 
Belgium, Denmark and Russia. 

In the experiments in cattle feeding made at the Moecken Digestibility o\ 
agronomic station, the main object in view was to determine the ^^^^' 
coeflBcient of digestibility of peat, and it was concluded that the 
product is indigestible; which means that it passes through the 
alimentary canal without being assimilated, and its presence 
diminishes the digestibility of the other elements of which the 
fodder is made up. From a practical point of view, peat has 
no money value; but this conclusion differs from that of many 
other investigators, and for this reason a few hints respecting 
the manner in which the experiments were conducted are of 
more than passing moment. Sheep were first fed with hay 
alone, with hay and molasses, and with peat-molasses combina- 
tions. The coefficient of digestibility is obtained by comparing 
the amount of sugar, nitrogenous elements, starch, etc., con- 
tained in a given quantity fed to an animal and that thrown 
out and found in the excrement. If 100 grams of starch were 
fed and 85 were found in the excrement, the coefficient of 
digestibility would then be 65. This is by no means a constant 
quantity, for it can be made to increase or decrease by the addi- 
tion of other substances, as is the case with peat-molasses com- 
binations, and the digestibility of hay was very much reduced 
by the presence of peat. The averages of these experiments 
were as follows: In the peat there were 200.6 grams organic 
substances; 12.2 grams nitrogenous substances; 112.1 non- 
nitrogenous substances; 4.9 raw fat; 71.3 raw cellulose, and in 
the excrements there were 216.5 grams organic substances; 19.6 
nitrogenous substances; 122.1 grams non-nitrogenous; 4.1 grams 
raw fat, and 69.9 grams raw cellulose. These figures show that 
there was more nutrient thrown off than the peat contained; 
consequently it was drawn from the ha}^, which is an actual 
money loss. Hence the agronomist who undertook these ex- 
periments concludes that peat does not offer for the purpose the 
advantages claimed, and some other substance should be com- 
bined with the molasses residuum when cattle feeding is the 
object sought. 

Consequently it is very justly concluded that peat within 



264 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

itself does not possess any nutritive value, but diminishes the 

feeding properties that would have otherwise existed. 

Opinions differ Great variance of opinion exists as to the nourishing value of 

as to the value ^|-ig peat-molasses combinations; for example, Maercker says 

of peat-molasses ,1 . -^ ^ ^^ .,. ^ ■,-,,, 

for feedinq same nuritive value as molasses and wheat bran; 

Jorss asserts that weight for weight it is equivalent to wheat, 
and that, furthermore, it is much more economical, the appetite 
of the animals fed increases, and there are no evidences of colics. 

Certain authorities, such as Gerland, Hassen, Vibrans and 
Keller, do not favor jDeat-molasses. They argue that when 
purchasing peat-molasses one pays for not only the price of the 
molasses, but also for the peat, which is simply ballast, and 
does not contain protein. One is obliged also to pay for the 
manual labor for the mixing and other expenses. 

Kellner, Zahn and Gillan show that peat, instead of possess- 
ing a nutritive value, carried out with the excrements smal^ 
quantities of nutrients that would have, or at least should have, 
been taken up or assimilated by the animal fed. Molasses 
fodders gain nothing in nourishing value by being combined 
with peat; hence it is urged that this product is simply a useless 
ballast in the stomach. 
Conclusions as Peat offers advantages in more ways than one, and after 
to value of weighing all the arguments for and against this so-called ballast 
peat-molasses ^^-^ ^^^ stomach, combined with our personal observations, the 
conclusion is drawn that up to the present time but few sub- 
stances have been found offering the advantages of this product. 
It is important, notwithstanding, to pass in review the various 
arguments brought forward. 

All the molasses fodders proposed and used have one advan- 
tage, they are very simple, and the farmer with only a very 
limited knowledge of the essentials for cattle feeding, may com- 
bine his rations so as to obtain most satisfactory results. Peat, 
as used in France, has the following composition: Water 18.90 
per cent., ash 2.32 per cent., cellulose 13.20 per cent., pentosane 
8.83 per cent, black substances 14.40 per cent, (containing 5.13 
per cent, nitrogen), various nitrogenous substances (averaging 
6.25 per cent, nitrogen) 1.80 per cent., unknown substances 
40.5 per cent. A fact not generally known is that the nitre- 



VALUE OF PEAT MOLASSES FOR FEEDING. 265 

genous substances of peat are those black elements which are 
soluble in ammonia. Experiments under special official 
auspices have shown that when they are submitted to artificial 
digestion the nitrogenous elements remain inactive; for 1.3 total 
nitrogen there was only 0.08 that had become soluble. The 
other elements of peat are apparently not assimilated, and if 
they offer no objectionable features during their absorption, com- 
paratively little fault may be found with their use. That it is 
a ballast appears a secondary consideration as compared with 
the advantages it offers as a wonderful molasses absorber. The 
Toury peat molasses combination has the following composi- 
tion: Water 19.00 per cent., ash 8.91 per cent., sugar 31.70 
percent., various soluble substances 20.93 percent., insoluble 
substances 19.46 per cent. This molasses fodder consists 
mainly of 24 per cent, peat and 76 per cent, slightly steam- 
diluted molasses. Experience has shown that horses eat it with 
avidity, and in every respect there are striking advantages to be 
derived from its use. The nitrogenous substances it contains 
are those black compounds before alluded to, and they may, 
with the amides, be considered as the calorific elements and be 
added to the carbohydrates. Experience in France has shown 
that the total cost of 100 kilos of this forage, as delivered at the 
factory, is one cent per pound or one dollar per hundred 
pounds. As an example of a practical ration for horses per 
1000 pounds live weight, may be mentioned crushed wheat 
7.65 lbs., hay 6.00 lbs., wheat bran 1.50 lbs. In France this 
ration costs about 50 cents. It has been found advantageous 
during June only, due to the special climatic conditions found 
in the country, to substitute another ration consisting of crushed 
wheat 3.4 lbs., peat molasses fodder 3.00 lbs. and hay 6.0 lbs., 
costing about 32 cents. After July the ration consists of 
crushed wheat 3.37 lbs., peat-molasses 3.5 lbs., hay 6.5 lbs. 

At the Toury factory this ration appears to offer considerable 
economy, amounting to over fifty dollars per horse per annum. 
Furthermore, the horses were kept in a most healthy condition. 
No colics followed, and their appetite continued good through- 
out the period of feeding. 

The molasses-peat combination should be sold at a reasonable 



266 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

price, BO as to be within reach of all; its market price should 
vary with that of molasses, and the salts of which it consists, 
to which must be added the cost of manufacture. It possesses 
special keeping powers, for even after several months the sugar 
percentage of the product does not decrease. 

The mixture of molasses with peat is rapidly attaining an im- 
portant place among the standard fodders. Wagner dries the 
peat obtained from moss, which is found in considerable quan- 
tities in northern Germany. Under the name of " molassion " 
it is used in the German artillery for feeding horses, and it has 
become very popular. 
Varied peat The Krantz-Boussac combination is very original and deserves 
molasses combi- ^q ^g considered. It consists in utilizing skimmed milk in con- 
nations, j^^nction with molasses. The great difficulty has been the 
transportation of the product, which was increased by its ten- 
dency to sour after a few days. A new combination con- 
sists of molasses, peat meal and skimmed milk. Experience 
seems to show that skimmed milk in the combination just men- 
tioned will no longer sour, is a solid product and may be 
easily handled. It would appear that the salts contained in 
the residuum molasses combined with the antiseptic principles 
of the peat prevent the lactic acid reaction; the product under 
consideration is made up in various forms. 
Feeding peat Some data has been received said to come from one of 
molasses to the officers in the German army, who has been making some 
liorses. important experiments in feeding horses with a compound of 
molasses and peat which has proved to be highly satisfactory. 
It is claimed that the fodder increases the animal's appetite, 
facilitates digestion and gives the hair of horses a brilliant 
lustre; colics among the animals fed almost entirely disap- 
peared. 

At first, the ration consisted of ^ lb. of peat flour and molas- 
ses, the quantity being gradually increased to 3 lbs. During 
the early stages of this feeding the horses refuse it, the hlack 
color and odor of the product being evidently not pleasing, but 
later the compound was eaten with avidity. The standard 
ration was 3 lbs. of molasses compound per pound of oats. 
When used as a complementary fodder, about one pound per 



WORKING OXEN FED WITH PEAT MOLASSES. 267 

diem appears to meet the requirements, and may be fed through- 
out the year. The best results in all cases were obtained with 
horses that were poor feeders. 

At Guhrau (France) the horses all received their regular oat 
ration and horse beans in which 500 grams of molasses are 
replaced by one kilo of peat-molasses. After three days' feeding 
all the animals accepted their new ration, and after eight days 
they ate it with avidity. Colics and other intestinal complica- 
tions were not encountered, and the hair and general appearance 
of the animals were most excellent. During the hard winter 
work the quantity of molasses allowed was increased to 1.5 kilos. 

Milch cows may be advantageously fed with this product, but Feeding peat 
certain precautionary measures should be taken, and under no "i^'a^ses to 
circumstances should it be given to cows during their calving. 
Later on, the reverse is the case, and there are many authori- 
ties to show that it is a mistake to feed more than 1.1 kilo of 
molasses per diem. 

At the Guhrau beet-sugar factory in 1896 the milch cows 
received 500 grams of palm oil meal combined with molasses, 
and during the following two years 1.25 kilos cotton seed meal 
and 2 kilos peat molasses Avere added to the regular forage. 
The quantity of milk obtained was all that one could desire. 

Hollrung obtained satisfactory results in milch cow feeding 
b}^ using 2|- lbs. For oxen he used 4.4 lbs., for horn cattle 6 
lbs., for horses 2 lbs., and for sheep half a pound per capita. 

Working oxen have also been very much benefited b}^ one Working oxen 
kilo peat-molasses per diem, their ration consisting of cotton ^"*' "^^'t'* ^^^ 
oil cake, hay and fermented cossettes, to which were added beet ^ 

tops. Little by little the peat-moksses fed was increased until 
2.5 kilos were added daily to the regular ration; but this amount 
was found to be excessive and it was reduced to 2 kilos. The 
oxen had an excellent appearance. For working cattle one may 
feed without hesitation 1^ to 2 kilos of peat-molasses per 1,000 
kilos live weight, and the hydrocarbons that this residuum con- 
tains are a great assistance in the work that is to be accomplished. 

Young steers may be fed 1.5 kilos peat-molasses per head 
and per diem. Experience shows that it is a mistake to add 
molasses to beet leaves, owing to the heav}'' percentage of sal', 
that the ration would contain. 



268 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Pigs fed with For pigs no one can doubt the advantages of peat-molasses 
peat-molasses, combinations, and their droppings show bej'ond cavil that there 
has been a complete assimilation of this fodder in their digestive 
tubes. Strange as it may seem, the unpleasant smell noticeable 
in all pig-sties is hardly perceptible when these molasses com- 
binations are fed, showing that no butyric fermentation has 
occurred in the digestive canal. One may feed without hesita- 
tion 5 kilos of peat-molasses per 1,000 kilos live weight. 

It is very important to notice that this combination should 
not be fed to excess. Schwarts mixes one part peat to two parts 
of molasses, with boiled skimmed milk, and thus obtains a 
combination that is easily handled. 
Oat flour and The mixture of oat flour or crushed oats has also some im- 
molasses com- portant advantages, and forms when combined with molasses a 
very valuable forage. The arguments advanced in favor of its 
introduction are based mainly on the supposed fact that peat is 
lacking in nutrients and is certainly very indigestible. The 
manner of feeding the oat flour and molasses renders it readily 
assimilable and digestible. The manufacture of this product 
consists in making a hot mixture of oat flour which is allowed 
to settle and undergo a partial drying, kneading it during the 
interval. The final product has the aspect of a fine flour and 
possesses a slightly glue-like texture. An interesting fact 
pointed out is that the flour-like oat-molasses combination is 
certainly very much more acceptable to cattle in general than 
any known peat mixture would be. The combination under 
consideration contains 23 per cent, fatty substance and protein, 
and for this reason it is claimed that it is a superior fodder for 
horses and working oxen. 

Molasses has not the same nutritive value as oats, but the 
desirable proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous sub- 
stances in a ration in which these relations are 1.6, can be 
reached by the addition of a fodder rich in these substances, 
such as brewers' grains, for example. 
Wheat molasses In most of the existing combinations peat is used to give the 
combination, molasses compound a dry appearance and thereby to facilitate 
its handling. Some interesting experiments have been recently 
made that promise very favorable results. In most countries 



WHEAT BRAN MOLASSES COMPARED WITH CORN GERMS. 269 

wheat is sold on the market at prices depending upon its quality 
and the modes of cleaning it, etc. During the process of clean- 
ing the inferior wheat is separated with other impurities, and is 
sold separately; and while its market price is much lower than 
the high grade wheat, it actually competes with wheat and has 
a tendency to lower the price of the superior article. If these 
low-grade wheats were combined with molasses they would help 
the farmer in many ways. The price of good wheat would rise 
and the inferior wheat would be advantageously utilized both 
for horses and cows. Experiments show that 3 lbs. of the in- 
ferior wheat can take the place of 4.5 lbs. of oats in the ration 
of a horse, and when brought down to a money basis this means 
an economy of several cents per diem. The new molasses com- 
bination Avith the flour of the wheat in question has the follow- 
ing composition: Water 5.5, nitrogenous substances 11.8, fatty 
substances 1.27, sugar 30.05, glucose and dextrin 11.53, starch 
22.53, cellulose 19.8, and mineral substances 5.09, These per- 
centages speak for themselves and show the advantages they ' 
would offer if used as a fodder. 

Certain authorities have made comparisons between the action Corn germs and 
of corn germs and molasses and that of corn combined with "lol^sses corn- 
colza oil meal and wheat middlings so that the total nutritive ^^''^, ^' 
substances were the same lor both, lo growmg sheep there 
were fed 7.5 kilos of this germ-molasses product, and 6.3 kilos 
of corn. The results obtained were favorable to molasses. 
Schultz obtained with milch cows the same results as could be 
realized with forage beets and oat bran. These last combina- 
tions are most excellent, as every one knows, for the production 
of milk, and may be replaced by the corn-germ molasses pro- 
duct in cases where beets cannot be had. Albert fed to bulls 4 
kilos per 1,000 kilos live weight. This was ultimatel}' increased 
to 6 kilos. The results obtained were in every way satisfactory. 

Dyk compares Avheat bran molasses with corn germs, IJ kilos Wheat bran 
being combined with f kilo of colza oil meal. In the experi- molasses com- 
ments made the totals of these two forages were substituted for ^^^^^ ^'*'' 
the same weight of bran-molasses; in other cases, gradually 
commencing by ^, ^, and f , all the forages were finally substi- 
tuted for bran-molasses. There was obtained an increase of 33 
per cent, in the quantity of milk per diem. 



270 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Bran and A mixture that is frequently recommended contains 50 parts 

molasses com- bran and 50 parts molasses. The molasses is heated to 80-88° C. 
bination. before adding the bran and the residuum is rapidly absorbed. 
Bran may be used in any and all rations. 

Professor Maercker, some time since, undertook some special 
experiments upon twenty -four steers with the idea of determin- 
ing the value of the molasses combinations. The animals were 
divided into four groups, all receiving the same quantity of 
Bran compared digestible nutrients per 1,000 kilos live weight, viz.: 3 kilos 
with peat. qJ digestible protein and 15 kilos of digestible non-nitrogenous 
substances. Two groups of steers, one in the stable and the 
other in the yard, received the peat-molasses rations; the two 
others the bran-molasses ration. The conclusion was that the 
bran-molasses was superior to the peat-molasses; consequently 
the high-priced peat product may be advantageously replaced 
by the bran mixture. However, it was claimed that peat had 
special physiological advantages, which the leading authorities 
have never been able to account for. 
Moss molasses Among the original efforts at introducing molasses for cattle 
combination, feeding is the attempt at combining the residuum with certain 
mosses of the Sphagnum variety. The important advantage 
claimed is that the substance in question has the special absorb- 
ing powers so much sought after when cattle feeding is the 
object in view. This moss is composed of nearly pure cellulose. 
It may be taken from the prairies in its natural state, and grows 
again almost immediately after a crop is gathered. Before be- 
ing used the moisture should be removed by means of an ordi- 
nary hay press, and the cakes thus obtained be subsequently 
air dried. It is possible to dry it just as hay is dried. It is 
delivered to the factory in this desiccated condition, and is then 
chopped up into small particles and mixed thoroughl}'-, by 
hand or mechanically, with 6 or 8 times its weight of molasses. 
It is then stored in a dry loft, and before being fed to cattle is 
mixed with cereal waste, chopped straw, palm oil cake, corn 
flour, rice flour, or other substances that the local environment 
may offer. In order to obtain the cake-like product one pound 
of moss is mixed with 25 lbs. of any of the substances just 
mentioned, and molasses added. Attention may be called to 



ABSORPTION OF THE BY-FODDER AND MOLASSES. 271 

the fact that in most of the peat molasses combinations, if the 
product is pressed between the fingers, the molasses at once 
oozes out between the pores of the peat, while on the other hand 
the moss-molasses and palm-oil meal comj)ound may be sub- 
mitted to considerable pressure without even a drop of molasses 
coming to the surface. Over two pounds of this product is 
pressed into a cake and dried at a temperature not above 100° 
C. An important essential in this instance is that the molasses 
and moss should be first thoroughly combined and then the 
other product added; if the order is reversed the compound 
would consist of dried moss and granules, the feeding value of 
which would be very doubtful. 

A German patent for preparing molasses fodder makes the Boiling water 
following claim: facilitating tlie 

A process for preparing molasses fodder, characterized by the absorption of 
fact that substances, such as bran or oil meal, etc., when sub- ^""^ •'J''^'"'''^'' 
mitted to boiling water, change their texture so that they may 
become saturated with molasses. After this treatment, there 
may be added nutritive substances, such as crushed cereals in 
varied forms. 

The inventor explains that hot vi^ater macerates the bran so 
as to render soluble the sticky or gummy substance with which 
the pores are impregnated. The molasses, instead of remaining 
on the surface of the substances, penetrates the pores and forms 
an intimate fusion with them. This molasses fodder, recom- 
mended for horses, is prepared as follows: 

Three hundred kilos of rye bran are moistened and left for an 
hour to soften. Upon this are poured from 500 to 600 liters of 
water at 100° C. This is covered ^and left for an hour so that 
the glue-like substances may have time to dissolve. About 200 
kilos of wheat bran are added, followed by kneading for half an 
hour or an hour, so that the gummy substance from the wheat 
bran may also be dissolved. There follows a continued stirring, 
and then about 30 kilos of chopped straw and 30 to 50 kilos of 
ground oil cake are added, and the product is subsequently 
energetically kneaded; then about 250 kilos molasses are added. 
If it is desired to add salt or stimulants this must be effected 
before the molasses is added, these solutions being dissolved and 
distributed throughout the pasty product. 



272 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

After this, cover the mass for an hour or two, to allow the 
fodder combination time to completely absorb the molasses. 
Then knead energetically, adding by degrees 150 kilos of 
crushed maize, 100 kilos of crushed barley and 100 kilos of 
crushed oats, which results in a consistent pasty product. The 
latter is now left for 2 or 3 hours and is then cut into pieces, 
which are run through rollers to be made into cakes 10 to 15 
mm. thick, and subsequently dried. The mass is then ready 
to be used as a fodder. 

The inventor claims that these ground cakes, prepared with 
the ingredients and in the proportions indicated, form a com- 
plete fodder on which an animal, if need be, could be exclus- 
ively fed. As the fodder already contains chopped straw, there 
is no necessity for additional constituents. It is important to 
follow the operations in the indicated order, and it is also essen- 
tial that the diiferent substances be thoroughly mixed. 
Glucose and rice The Delattre molasses combination, while it was introduced 
flour molasses several years since, has not met with the success that was 
combination, j^^pg^j^ notwithstanding the fact that it has many very valuable 
characteristics. Up to the time that it was introduced the main 
use of molasses in cattle feeding was simply for sprinkling 
hay and forages, but the residuum was never considered as 
an actual mainstay in feeding. In this Delattre method, it was 
claimed that molasses was the mainstay, the basis upon which 
the feeding depended. The composition consisted of 100 parts 
glucose and 50 parts rice flour combined with molasses. These 
combinations undergo certain variations, but in all cases the 
ingredients introduced are such as to keep the general propor- 
tions of the constituents about the same, viz.: Proteids 26.7 
percent., fatty substances 5.40 per cent., carbohydrates 21.16 
per cent., sugar 20.82 per cent., water 12,45 per cent., ash and 
cellulose 13.44 per cent. 
Feeds sprinlded Not long since A. Guttmann addressed a German agricultural 
with molasses j^ieeting on molasses feeding, and as he has given the product a 
and heated un- pj-^g^j^al trial during a period of ten years what he says is of more 
than usual interest. Five hundred to 600 working oxen and 300 
horses are used on his farm. For several years past 5 kilos of 
molasses have been fed per diem to each animal of 550 to 600 



PEANUT SHELL MOLASSES COMBINATION. 273 

kilos live weight, no distinction being made between stall-fed 
and working animals. One year 645 steers were fattened dur- 
ing a period of 90 days. The forage was finely chopped and 
■then sprinkled with molasses to be subsequently heated under 
pressure of two to three atmospheres. The steers received their 
rations in six meals per diem, the fodder being sprinkled with 
molasses each time, and after an interval of a few days they 
declined eating until the molasses was added. The steers kept 
in an excellent condition when fed with straw, cereal middlings 
and molasses. The ration for horses was 1.5 kilos to 2 kilos 
per diem. In this form swine received one kilo to 1.5 of 
molasses per diem, no allowance being taken of their live 
weight. 

It is interesting to call attention to the fact that during the Peanut sliell 
first experiments at Toury of horse feeding with peat-molassec!, molasses com- 
the ration contained 883 grams of digestible albuminoids, which bination. 
meant 9.8 per cent, of the total nutrients. Experience has 
shown that in this ration 498 grams of digestible albuminoids 
are sufficient to meet the requirements of the average emer- 
gency. This amount of protein means about 7 per cent, of the 
total nutritive substances. From this practical experience the 
astonishing result has been obtained, that the protein may be 
diminished 385 grams, or 40 per cent., without in any way 
changing the practical working power of the animal fed. From 
a common-sense standpoint, it is evident that it is desirable for 
the horses fed to receive not only an apparently useful element, 
such as sugar, but also nitrogenous substances in a reasonable 
proportion, which, all facts considered, would represent a ration 
suited to the farm-horse in general; for feeding when considered 
from a general standpoint always means the consideration of 
many factors, among which not the least important is the ne- 
glect or care of the animal's keeper. 

M. Lambert, and others, claim to have found in peanut 
shells the essentials for the emergency. The composition of 
these is as follows: Water, 7.28 per cent. ; ash, 3.39 per cent. ; 
digestible nitrogenous, 1.40 per cent. ; indigestible nitrogenous^ 
4.25 per cent.; amides, 2.57 per cent.; fatty substances, 6.17 
percent.; pentosane, 37.58 percent.; cellulose, 4.75 per cent. ; 
18 



274 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

unknown substances, 9.86 per cent. This analysis shows that 
the peanut wastes are poor in digestible nitrogenous substances, 
but are, on the other hand, rich in fatty substances and pento- 
sane. Even taking these facts into consideration, their nutri- 
tive value is very limited. They, however, have the advantage 
of being readily mixed with molasses, and in more ways than 
one they appear to offer certain striking practical advantages 
over peat. When combined with residuum beet molasses, the 
product has the following composition: Water, 12.61 per cent. ; 
ash, 7.02 per cent.; digestible nitrogenous, 0.95 percent.; in- 
digestible nitrogenous, 2.35 per cent,; amides, 7.50 per cent.; 
fatty substances, 1.70 percent.; sugar, 22.60 percent.; pento- 
sane, 10.4 percent.; cellulose, 24.83 percent.; unknown sub- 
stances, 10.01 per cent. This combination calls for 45 parts 
peanut shells and 55 parts slightly diluted molasses, or 51.4 per 
cent, molasses at 44°. The product costs about 81 cents per 
100 lbs. 

Efforts were made to give this combination a practical test. 
The ration per 1000 lbs. live weight consisted of 3. 36 lb. crushed 
oats, 4.90 lbs. peanut shell molasses combination, 6.00 lbs. 
molasses. The horses fed flourished, and the resulting econ- 
omy meant 12 cents per diem for each animal fed — in other 
words 25 per cent., an item not to be overlooked. Unfor- 
tunately a serious practical objection followed — it was a pasty 
compound, not relished by the animals, and in this respect did 
not prove practical. Notwithstanding this fact, there appear to 
be many advantages to be derived from the use of this forage, 
and some claim that it is superior to peat-molasses combina- 
tions. From a farmer's standpoint, it is entirely deficient in 
protein; while from a manufacturer's standpoint, whose main 
object is to get rid of his residuum molasses under the best 
possible conditions, when he undertakes to manufacture the 
fodder himself, peat offers special advantages. However, fur- 
ther efforts have been made to push the peanut shell combina- 
tion with certain oil cakes, such as the oriental sesame, to 
which must be added oat flour or crushed wheat, etc. The 
sesame and peanut-molasses combination has about the fol- 
lowing composition: W^ater, 12.74 per cent.; ash, 8.07 per 



HAY, STRAW AND MOLASSES. 275 

cent. ; digestible nitrogenous, 9.34 per cent. ; indigestible nitrog- 
enous, 2.0 percent.; amides, 5.25 percent.; fatty substances, 
3.66 per cent.; sugar, 2.0 per cent.; pentosane, 6.54 per cent.; 
cellulose, 15.03 per cent.; unknown substances, 17.43 per cent. 
It is to be noticed that the laxative effects of the molasses are, 
in an imj)ortant measure, done away with by the contrary in- 
fluence of the sesame. It is claimed that the nutritive value 
of the combination is high, as, besides its equivalent in sugar, 
it contains a considerable proportion of fatty constituents, with 
other hydrocarbons readily assimilated. The final combination 
for horses, as adopted at Toury, consists of oat flour, peanut 
shells and molasses; its composition is as follows: Water, 16.69 
percent.; ash, 5.62 percent.; digestible nitrogenous, 3.20 per 
cent.; indigestible nitrogenous, 1.80 per cent.; amides, 3.19 per 
cent.; sugar, 15.98 percent.; starch, 13.20 per cent.; pentosane, 
9.32 per cent.; cellulose, 14.64 per cent.; unknown substances, 
10.97 per cent. It is made up of 36 per cent, molasses (44 per 
cent, sugar), 35 per cent, crushed oats, and 27 per cent, peanut 
shells, to which must be added the water absorbed during eat- 
ing. The nutritive value of the compound is self-evident. It 
is declared by M. Lambert, that of all the combinations thus 
far proposed, none offer the special advantages of the one just 
mentioned. 

The early experiments with sheep were with 2 lbs. hay per ^gy ^^fgy^ ^„^_ 
diem and subsequently with 1 lb. of hay and one-quarter pound molasses, 
molasses; the animal remained in an excellent condition. Later 
experiments show beyond cavil that when oxen were fed with a 
mixture of molasses and barley straw, or a mixture of straw and 
oil cake, they could be kept in a good healthy condition during 
the winter. The maximum limit that should be fed per diem 
was found to be 8 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. It was 
claimed that larger amounts could not be assimilated and would 
therefore be wasted. For milch cows, the molasses was simply 
added, and there was no decrease in the milk production as is 
usually the case when changes are made in the regimen. Fed 
in quantities of 2.2 lbs. per diem, the percentage of fatty sub- 
stances in the milk was increased. In 16 cows under experi- 
ment the fat percentage rose from 3.71 to 3.94, and in another 



276 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAK, ETC. 

series of experiments upon 60 cows this percentage rose from 
2.89 to 3.3 per cent., the quantit}' of milk in this case increas- 
ing by 10 quarts per diem. In another series of the early 
experiments made with 12 cows in Austria, the quantity of 
molasses fed was daily increased from one pound to 2^ pounds. 
The total molasses fed was about 100 lbs., and as a consequence 
the volume of milk increased by 35 quarts during the last five 
days of the experiment. Mention may be made of Kamm'sf 
experiments, in which the standard ration of the cows was 10 
lbs. hay, 3 lbs. chopped straw, 50 lbs. forage beets, 4 lbs. of 
flour per 1000 lbs. live weight. Here again the quality and 
quantity of milk was considerabl}^ increased. In Vibrans' ex- 
periments the hay and chopped straw fed were sprinkled with 
molasses and subsequently thoroughly combined; then sprinkled 
with cotton-seed flour and again mixed. The results obtained 
were far more satisfactory than had hitherto been realized. The 
first mentioned experimenter gave to sheep 36 lbs. per 1000 lbs. 
live weight. With pigs only 4 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight 
could be advantageously fed. 

Vibrans has been able to make an excellent fodder, which is 
very compact and dry, by combining 3 per cent, residuum 
molasses with 1 per cent, pulverized straw. The straw has an 
important advantage over peat, as in itself it contains important 
nourishing properties. The use of beet molesses for cattle-feed- 
ing is not new, and in France, as early as 1829, M. J. J. Ber- 
nard diluted molasses to 20° B. and combined it with chopped 
straw and fed it to cattle, horses and sheep. 
IVIolasses and Molasses and straw combinations were at one time very much 
straw combina- jj-^ vogue. In order to make the mixture the straw had to be 
reduced to a powder, and it was claimed that it would have all 
the advantages and none of the disadvantages of the peat- 
molasses compounds. The apparatus needed is most simple 
and may be managed by any farmer. 

Seidel mixes diluted molasses with chopped straw for grow- 
ing steers, which have been fed during the first month with 1^ 
kilos of molasses per head and per diem; then 2 kilos per head 
and per diem, which means about 4 per cent, of the animal's 
Aveight, and he thereby obtained excellent results, the meat 



tion. 



brewers' grains and molasses. 277 

being irreproachable in every respect. Working oxen received 
between November and May IJ kilos of this residuum per diem. 
However, in this exceptional case the results obtained with 
milch cows were not very satisfactory. 

If one wishes to mix the residuum with chopped straw or 
other forages, it is recommended that the product be always 
diluted, and that atomizers or sprinklers be used for the pur- 
pose, which method is becoming very popular. After sprink- 
ling, the mass is turned over and thoroughly mixed. This 
combination is much liked by cattle in general, who eat the 
same with avidity. 

Of late Wrede proposed that straw be submitted to a regular 
crushing, which treatment suitably facilitates its power of 
absorption of molasses. The coefficient of digestibility of straw 
would be increased by this operation. When it is desired that 
the diluted molasses be fed at once, certain precautions should 
be taken, such as great cleanliness of all the mixing appliances, 
as there are dangers of fermentation which might subsequently 
affect the animals seriously. 

Experience shows that excellent combinations have been Potato pulp anrf 
made by adding potato pulp to molasses. Maercker submitted ""•'^^ses. 
this pulp to the action of lime in a large receptacle, subse- 
quently washing it with a jet of water and pressing in a special 
rolling combination. The product was ultimately dried in 
special troughs, having spiral agitators. In the proportion of 1 
part molasses to 4 parts potato pulp, the molasses is imme- 
diately absorbed. The pulp contains only 30 per cent, of dry 
substances, and is very much improved in this respect by the 
mixture of molasses containing 85 per cent, dry matter. Fur- 
thermore, this combination may be dried in a Buttner-Meyer 
furnace. Among other interesting experiments may be men- 
tioned those in which the combination consisted of equal pro- 
portions of wheat flour and molasses. 

Seidel fed 2 kilos of brewers' grains, combined with molasses. Brewers' grains 
in the proportion of one part molasses and one part grains, to ^"'' ''"''^^^^^• 
150 working horses and 10 saddle horses, and he declares they 
were in far better condition than if they had been fed on oats 
alone. Only one case of colic was noticed, and this after a time 



binations. 



278 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

disappeared. Two kilos of this forage took the place of 2 kilos 
of oats, with a considerable money saving to all interested. 
The molasses-brewers' grain combination also produced excel- 
lent effects upon young cattle, pigs, etc. 

The Poppelsdorf (Germany) experiments demonstrate beyond 
doubt that these molasses combinations constitute an excellent 
fodder for milch cows. Combinations made up of powdered 
oil meal and brewer's grains undergo many alterations. The 
excessive acidity may in a measure be overcome by adding a 
certain amount of lime, leaving 20 per cent, moisture for the 
combination. In damp climates it is almost impossible to 
keep the product in question for any length of time; but when 
it is to be consumed at once, these transformations have but a 
secondary importance. 
Palm oil and In the Hollrung experiments the forage contained 50 per 
molasses com- cg^t. residuum molasses and 50 per cent, so-called palm-nut 
meal. The composition of the product was as follows: Nitrog- 
enous substances, 11.4 per cent.; raw fatty substances, 3.18 per 
cent.; non-nitrogenous substances, 44.03 per cent.; cellulose, 
17.53 per cent.; ash, 6.3 per cent; water, 17 per cent. The 
daily ration was 2.8 lbs. for milch cows, 4.5 lbs. for oxen, 2.2 
lbs. for horses, and ^ lb. for sheep. These experiments were very 
successful. It was shown that the intestinal canal was kept 
thoroughly clean, and in no instance was there recorded a case 
of colic. The palm meal molasses combination has now be- 
come a very important industry in Bohemia, and there is an 
establishment that makes nothing else. Voigt's experiments 
were with compounds of palm and coco oil meal and molasses, 
which were fed to 16 omnibus horses, their regular rations 
being 19 lbs. corn, 9 lbs. hay, 9 lbs. straw, 2.2 lbs. chopped 
straw. The corn in the ration was reduced to 14.3 lbs., and 
instead of the 4.7 lbs. there was used an oil meal molasses mix- 
ture. The results were so satisfactory that the preparation was 
fed to 850 horses. 

It is important to note that the use of oil meal or substances 
of any kind that have undergone the slightest organic alteration 
is a great mistake when a healthy ration is the main object in 
view, and herein is the difficulty in all these compounds with 



PALM OIL AND MOLASSES COMBINATIONS. 



279 



green molasses and the superiority of liquid molasses. The ob- 
jection to oil cake and molasses was that its use could not be 
made general; under certain circumstances its mixing with 
rations was impossible, hence bran and molasses in equal 
amounts was found to be better suited for general feeding 
purposes. 

The palm oil and molasses product may be ground to flour, 
and combined with 80 to 100 parts in weight of heated molasses, 
at a temperature of 60° to 100° C. This is mixed upon a 
cemented platform, using wooden shovels for the purpose. 
The hotter the molasses the more complete will be its combina- 
tion with every particle of oil cake, and the ultimate product 
will be so much improved. At first this combination is more 
or less fluid, but after a time it assumes a dry aspect, and in 
reality is sufficiently free from moisture to be placed in sacks 
and shipped almost the same as flour. A man may prepare 
from two to two and a half tons of this forage in a day. 

The workshops of Selwig and Lange, at Brunswick, have de- 
livered to the sugar factory at Schende (Germany) a special 
and well-arranged mixer, permitting the preparation of 50 tons 
of this forage per diem. Herewith is the composition, as pre- 
pared at two factories: 



Two Analyses of Palm Oil and Molasses Combinations. 



Constituents. 



Moisture 

Ash 

Fatty substance 

Nitrogenous substance 
Cellulose substance . . . 
Non-nitrogenous • 



ScliAvanberg 


Alt Jauer 


sugar factory. 


sugar factory. 


Ter cent. 


Per cent. 


17.7 


15.38 


6.13 


5.96 


■ 3.18 


4.27 


11.39 


12.81 


17.53 


12.15 


44.07 


49.4 



This forage produces the best effects upon the general health 
of animals to which it is fed. It is not used solely for cows 
and sheep. Since 1896, an omnibus company, organized in 
Berlin, has fed 850 horses with this forage. The hordes have 



280 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

been in excellent health, and the combination has resulted in 
considerable profit to the company. 

On certain French farms where diffusion j)ulps had been 
combined with wheat straw and 2 kilos of oil cake, 3 kilos of 
molasses were substituted for the latter. The steers con- 
tinued to fatten, and were in much better condition than in 
former years. In the case of working oxen, 2 kilos of molasses 
were used instead of 1.250 grams oil cake, while horses received 
1.500 kilos of molasses per diem. 

Suitable I'eceptacles for raw molasses and its transportation 
form difficult problems for the farmer, whereas molasses-forage 
combinations may be shipped in bags. The first efforts in 
this direction were those made with palm-oil cake, for the 
simple reason that it was possible to obtain a combination con- 
sisting of 60 per cent, molasses and 40 per cent, oil cake, which 
was mainly used for milch cow feeding. 
Blood molasses There is another forage to which a great deal of attention has 
combinations, i^een given of late, and that is a mixture of animal blood with 
molasses. For many years molasses has been mixed with fresh 
blood to form a forage for pigs and also for horses and lambs. 
Blood has a very considerable nutritive value, which has been 
long since demonstrated by Sanborn. Its principal function 
consists in forming muscular tissue, and this is made evident 
by examining its composition, which is, according to BungCj, 
about as follows: 

Globules, Serum, 

31.87 per cent. 68.13 per cent. 



Per cent. Per cent. 

Water - ' 19.12 ' ' "" '62.22 

Hemoglobulin and albumin . , 12j3§ ...-.,:. 4.99 

Unknown organic substances . ■ 0.24... 0.38 

Ash ^ 0.15 • 0.54 



According to Misl and Strohmer, the average composition for 
ten analyses of blood-molasses combinations as now used was: 
Water, 77.93 per cent.; protein, 20.88 per cent.; unknown 
organic substances, 0.96 per cent.; ash, 0.82 per cent. 



MOLASSES ACTS AS ANTISEPTIC, 28l 

When one reflects upon the possibilities of this molasses Possibilities of 
utilization, appalling facts become apparent. In the ordinar}^ blood-molasses 
slaughter-houses of most of our popular centres the volume or combinations, 
quantity of blood that remains is something stupendous — as, 
for example, in Vienna, where it reaches 6,000 tons per annum. 
If we should combine residuum molasses with this product, we 
would have at once at our disposal enough forage to feed the 
majority, if not all, of the live stock of that empire, and there 
would be very little call for other feeding stuffs. 

Molasses-blood combinations are always made up of other in- Molasses acts 
gredients, such as bran, oil cake, etc. In these mixtures, as antiseptic, 
molasses, according to Fredericksen and Clausen, prevents the 
putrefaction of the blood, owing to the presence of a large per- 
centage of sugar. The activity of micro-organisms in this com- 
bination is thus paralyzed. Experience appears to show that 
it is a mistake to add more than 10 per cent, blood to the 
molasses. It is interesting to note that in order to obviate 
organic changes entirely one may heat the forage at a tempera- 
ture of 80° to 100° C, which means to desiccate the product so 
that it will ultimately contain 15 to 20 per cent, moisture. 
Without doubt this has an excellent effect, as it obviates the 
contamination of many diseases, such as tuberculosis. The 
disinfecting action of molasses was discovered as follows, the 
present arguments being the outcome of the observations of 
Stein, at Copenhagen. A servant accidentally upset a certain 
amount of molasses into a receptacle full of blood. In the 
desire to make amends for his individual shortcoming he 
endeavored to procure other blood, but not being successful he 
admitted the accident. The receptacle which had previously 
contained the overturned blood was forgotten and put aside, 
and when examined later it was noticed that the blood had 
been completely preserved through the intervention of the 
molasses, and it was in no way altered from its primitive 
organic condition. 

Fresenius has endeavored for a long time, but without suc- 
cess, notwithstanding even the action of micro-organisms, to 
bring about a putrefaction of a molasses-blood combination, by 
keeping it in an oven, at a temperature of 37° C, during a 
long period. 



282 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Method of pre- Haefke gives the following description of Frederik sen's 
paring blood- method for preparing a blood molasses feed. This mode has 
molasses combi- hitherto been considered a secret. The blood is collected in a 
nations. - i i • i • -, . 

receptacle, and m order to prevent its coagulating a small tur- 
bine is placed in the midst of the product to keep it in constant 
motion and to break up any particles that it may contain. 

It is then run into a large mixing tank with an agitator 
having a vertical shaft with horizontal arms. There is added 
to the blood 25 per cent, of molasses. Subsequent to the mix- 
ing a pump forces the mixture to a last compounding appliance, 
where the porous substance is added, such as bran, etc. This 
compounding apparatus consists mainly of two rollers moving 
in opposite directions, so that the paste shall be thoroughly 
mixed. Finally the forage is dried in what is known as the 
Otto furnace, used for the drying of distillers' grains. This 
dryer consists of two compartments or troughs, one over the 
other, heated by steam, and in each of which there is an agitator 
consisting of coils through which expanded steam circulates. 
This heating brings about a sterilization of the combination. 
From the first trough the forage falls into the second, through 
which it passes, and ultimately leaves the apparatus entirely 
dried. 

The composition of the blood-molasses combination such as is 
made at Copenhagen, Berlin, Hamburg, Hanover, Milan, etc., 
is as follows: 

Per cent. 

Water 9.40 

Amides 3.56 

Albumin (nitrogen X 6.25) = 24.19^ 

Fatty substances • 3.15 

Ash 7.6 

Cellulose • 8.6 

Non-nitrogenous elements • 43.5 

Varied absorb- Besides bran the blood may be absorbed by brewers' grains, 

ents may be dried cossettes, etc. , and subsequently mixed in the desired 

used. proportions with molasses. Under these conditions it is readily 

^ Ninety-six per cent, is digestible. 



ELIMINATION OF FIBKIN. 



283 



handled and possesses all the qualities looked for in molasses 
mixtures. The composition of these various combinations is 
as follows: 



Analyses of Three Blood-Molasses Combinations. 



Constituents. 



Water 

Nitrogenous substances 

Non-nitrogenous substances-. 

Fatty substances 

Sugar 

Non-nitrogenous not specified 

Cellulose 

Ash 

Sand 



Blood+ 

wheat bran+ 

molasses. 



Per cent. 

7.33 

24.62 

3.32 

1.04 

7.50 

42.20 

7.02 

6.10 

0.87 



Bran+blood+ 

brewers' grains 

+molasses. 



Per cent. 

8.51 

25.00 

2.88 

0.14 

12.90 

35.20 

9.77 

5.35 

0.25 



Blood-f-dried 

cossettes+ 
mol asses. 



Per cent. 

8.53 

29.55 

3.51 

0.22 

16.69 

30.69 

6.24 

4.44 

0.13 



In the four analyses given it is to be noticed that there is a 
considerable percentage of albuminoids and sugar, all of which 
are easily digested. Notwithstanding the sterilization of the 
compound, the digestibility of the albumen of the blood remains 
higher than the digestibility of vegetable albumen. Maercker 
found that 95.9 per cent, of this albumen could be assimilated. 

Jolles eliminated the fibrin of the blood and then submitted 
it to a centrifugal action in order to separate the serum. The 
globule-like paste thus obtained is four times richer in nitro- 
genous substances than was the fresh blood, and has greater 
keeping qualities, which may be still further increased b}' add- 
ing 10 per cent, of molasses. It has been suggested that this 
compound shall be absorbed by suitable porous feeds, and then 
it need not be submitted to a desiccation in order to give it 
excellent keeping qualities. It consists of concentrated forage 
of great nutritive value and possessing exceptional digestibility, 
which is admirably suited for cavalry purposes, Already 24 
regiments of Germany have adopted it. Its composition varies 
with the manner in which it is prepared. Herewith are two 
analyses of interest: 



Eliminatien 
o! fibrin. 



284 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Two Analyses of Blood-Molasses Combinations (Fibrin ELimNATED] 



Water 

Nitrogenous substances 

Non-nitrogenous substances • • 

Fatty substances 

Sugar 

Cellulose 

Ash 

Sand 

Non-nitrogenous not specified • 

Total 




Per cent. 

7.40 
44.66 
1.68 
0.82 
7.90 
6.67 
5.21 
0.10 
25.56 



100.00 



100.00 



Feeding horses The health of horses under this feeding appears to be excel- 

with blood lent and the digestive energy is in no way impaired. Certain 

molasses, authorities declare that for horses the product should be given 

gradually, in order that the animals may become accustomed to 

it little by little. 

It is impossible to feed protein to excess and decrease the 
fatty substances. It is, furthermore, impossible to substitute 
more than one-half of the oats ration by this feed. In many 
cases 2 kilos are given per diem, and the oats ration is reduced 
from 6 kilos to 3 kilos. By this arrangement good results are 
obtained, and after a year's feeding the health of the animals is 
all that can be desired". A saving in money always follows 
its use. Some authorities deplare that the milk production is 
increased 5 per cent, per diem. Experience seems to show that 
it is possible in the case of milch cows to substitute for certain 
oil meals this molasses-blood forage combination. 

feeding cows. Lienthal has obtained very favorable results in feeding cows. 
He estimates that the profits from this feeding may be put 
down at 40 pfennigs [10 cents] per head and per diem. The 
results obtained with pigs were less satisfactory. 

Feeding pigs. This, according to Maercker, seems paradoxical, as this forage 
would appear to be easily assimilated and adapted to the in- 
testinal digestion of pigs. 

These results are absolutely in contradiction with those ob- 
tained in America with blood-feed combinations, and Maercker 
believes it is mainly to the absorbing material used that we must 



MONEY VALUE. 285 

look for the difficulty that has rendered it objectionable for this 
special purpose. On the other hand instances may be given in 
Austria of feeding over 2,000 pigs for a year with blood- 
molasses, and an enormous number of their young were 
nourished during this interval. 

Results published relating to blood-molasses combination all 
show that excellent effects may be expected from its use. It 
may safely be said that chickens, geese, ducks, oxen, etc., Feeding to 
will relish it. In the case of steers the quality of the meat is animals in 
materially improved. general. 

Ramm and Mintrop have fed 6 to 8 kilos of this product per 
diem without the slightest complications. The general secre- 
tions were favorable, showing that the assimilation in every re- 
spect had been satisfactory. 

There are many German authorities to show that these com- Feeding to 
binations have given excellent results in cases where certain horses, 
muscular force is needed, such as for horses; and in most 
instances there have been considerable money savings, owing 
to the substitution of this product for oats and corn. 

Without doubt this con^bination has a future, and some fac- Extension given 
tories that are actually in existence in Continental Europe which to blood-molasses 
utilize this beet-sugar molasses in combination with blood can- '^^'''na- 
not meet the demand for the product. The cost of this com- 
bination cannot be determined with great accuracy, for the 
simple reason that it depends upon so many factors. Under all 
circumstances one should consider the market value of the con- 
centrates used and make allowances for the facility of obtaining 
it in the quantities needed. 

When molasses is to be used the fact must not be overlooked 
that allowance must be made for its money cost. In order to Money value, 
establish the price that one can reasonably pay for a forage- 
molasses combination, one allows for the sugar percentage upon 
the accepted basis of 50 per cent, of sugar in the residuum. 
The price of the mixture may be then calculated without 
trouble. The ration should contain sufficient fatty and albu- 
minoid substances in order to make up for what is lacking in 
the molasses, for in this there will always be found the requisite 
non-nitrogenous substances. 



286 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

General rations. The quantity of the ration that may be fed without danger 
to different animals is as follows : 

Growing steers 4 to 6 kilos per 1000 kilos live weight. 

Working oxen 2 to 3 kilos per 1000 kilos live weight. 

Milch cows 1 to 1 J kilos to animals of an average weight. 

Growing pigs ^ kilo to animals of an average weight. 

Growing sheep 200 grams to animals of an average Aveight. 

Superior sheep 100 grams to animals of an average weight. 

Horses 1 kilo to animals of an average weight. 

These figures cannot be taken as absolute, as they vary with 
the characteristics of the animal being fed, and a certain care is 
always required to accustom the animals to it. 

Experience shows that the best results are obtained by feed- 
ing one-fourth of the ultimate ration per diem, and increasing 
the amount week by week. Under these circumstances all the 
objectionable features of this forage are overcome. 
Preparing the The ideal utilization of this molasses-blood combination would 
blood-molasses ^^ ^^^ ^Yie farmer to compound his own mixtures as the occa- 
fodder on the . • i ^ i i . . ■, . . 

^^^^ sion might demand, usmg a special machme not costing much, 

which could be carried from place to place as required. 

The Shraeder apparatus in a measure combines these requi- 
sites. The mixture is heated, either by steam circulating 
directly beneath the dryer, or preferably directly over the tire, 
taking the precaution to have a double bottom in which hot 
water circulates. The blood, forage, and molasses, are fed to 
the apparatus by a rotating distributor whose working is 
regular, and which may be arranged so as to meet any 
demand. The molasses and the feed are then mixed in a 
cylinder, in which there are special agitators. 

By the use of an apparatus of this kind one can overcome in 
a measure the losses during keeping and thus economize an 
amount of mone}' that will more than compensate for the cost 
of the machine and do away with the profits and demands of 
the third party. 
Difficulties in The keeping of this special product has offered some diffi- 
keeping. culty, as the sugar percentage of most of these compounds is 
such as to cause rapid alteration owing to fermentation. The 



VAURY WHEAT FLOUR MOLASSES COMBINATION. 287 

bacteria formed exert their influence, causing diarrhoea among 
the animals. It has already been noticed in Germany that 
these transformations of the blood-naolasses may be so intensive 
that the mass becomes heated, and spontaneous combustion 
follows. 

Ex]3erience shows that it is desirable to take certain pre- 
cautionary measures in order to overcome this difficulty. 
Under all circumstances the product should never be placed in 
bags before it is completely dry. Furthermore, it should never 
be kept in any warehouse where wood is stored. The store- 
house should be built entirely of stone, and the product itself 
should not be piled up too high. 

The Vaury preparation having been so generally accepted in Vaury wheat 
France, it is interesting to follow up the combination in some flour molasses 
detail. The inventor says that his effort Avas to combine a combination, 
product that could be carried without difficulty and would not 
possess any of the objectionable features of the molasses-peat 
combination; for why introduce into the stomach a mass of inert 
substances that are not assimilated? Animals under this regime 
are obliged to waste their powers in masticating a substance 
that is worthless, so far as their general health is concerned. 
Whatever may be the worth of the arguments against peat 
combinations, they continue to be in vogue. The object Vaury 
had in view was to use other constituents, offering all the 
advantages and none of the disadvantages of the previous com- 
binations. Wheat flour of a superior quality was the basis 
adopted. The thorough mixing was one of the essentials for 
success, and this was follow^ed by a limited fermentation and 
baking, the result being bread, in the general acceptance of the 
expression, in which all the ingredients are assimilated. There 
are used 100 parts of wheat flour and about 70 parts molasses. 
This is mixed and kneaded so as to form a paste, as is 
done in bread-making. To this paste or dough should be 
added a suitable ferment. It is run through special mechanical 
appliances in which the thickness, etc., of a standard dimension 
are obtained. These cakes are baked in an oven and subse- 
quently broken into pieces. The bread-molasses thus obtained 
may be fed in a dry condition to horses, or in a semi-moist 



288 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

state to, animals in general. Experiments in general thus far 
made appear to show that this combination is entirel}^ digest- 
ible. It is claimed that there are no dangers of colics through 
its use, that the desired fattening results are realized, etc. It is 
said that the Vaury bread-molasses combination has the follow- 
ing composition: Nitrogenous substances, 10 to 12 per cent.; 
hydrocarbons, 50 to 60 per cent., of which 25 to 50 per cent, are 
saccharine substances, 12 to 15 per cent, moisture, and 10 to 12 
percent, mineral substances. All facts considered, the molasses 
combination, just described, deserves more than a passing con- 
sideration. 

Solid molasses is made by combining the residuum with saw- 
dust; it may be readily carried in that condition. The mixing 
consists in using 100 parts molasses for 15 to 20 parts sawdust, 
and evaporating during constant agitation, lasting for over an 
hour. The final product is brown in appearance, not sticky, 
and has the characteristic odor of molasses. The sweet water 
of exosmosis may be treated in the same manner. The saw- 
dust does not prevent fermentation, nor is it in the way when 
the residuum is to be incinerated. The apparatus used for this 
purpose may be employed for the preparation of molasses 
fodders, etc. 
Requisite keeping Molasses, as it leaves the beet-sugar factory, seldom contains 
qualities of more than 22 per cent, water and may be kept for a consider- 
molasses. ^j^jg period; but when this percentage reaches even 25, altera- 
tions are to be dreaded. In the preparations of molasses 
fodders, it is always desirable to concentrate as much as 
possible and not to dilute the product. 

According to observations at the German agricultural stations, 
those forages belonging to the same class as molasses should not 
contain more than 20 per cent, water, and not over 25 per cent, 
for peat molasses combination, as the higher this moisture per- 
centage is, the greater are the chances of decomposition during 
its keeping. 

These fermentations are always accompanied by considerable 
sugar losses. It may be mentioned that after a year's keeping 
almost all the sugar has disappeared, which is often the cause 
of considerable litigation between the seller and the plirchaser, 



DISHONEST DEALINGS IN MOLASSES. 289 

the latter never finding an equivalent for his money; but manu- 
facturers of this molasses forage combination declare that the 
disappearance of the sugar does not necessarily signify that the 
forage has lost its nutritive value. 

The money value of the nitrogenous substances of molasses is 
also a factor which has a pecuniary import not yet settled in 
practice. Furthermore, it is important to add that the analyses 
of molasses forages are very difficult operations. 

According to Gormermann, it is mainly in oil cake feeds that 
rapid alterations are to be found. The acids contained in differ- 
ent substances with which the molasses is mixed favor all sorts 
of fermentations. The acid in distillers' and brewers' slops is 
lactic acid. In oil cake it is oleic acid, while in peat there is a 
long series of acids, the principal one of which is humic acid. 

As regards brewers' slops, it would be useless to attempt to 
neutralize it in order to increase its keeping qualities, as it is 
precisely this acidity that is so much relished b}' the animals to 
which it is fed. Oil cake has the advantage that the oleic acid 
which always brings about digestive complications is neutralized 
by the addition of lime and molasses. It must be noted that 
this addition of lime does not entirely do away with the action 
of certain micro-organisms of oil cake upon the fatty sub- 
stances which they contain. The existing acids are neutralized, 
but if one wishes to do away entirely with these micro-organic 
transformations it is essential not to attempt the keeping of this 
special forage. 

Molasses forages in Europe have a disadvantage of being ex- Dishonest deal- 
pensive, on account of the industry, in many cases, being in theings in molasses, 
hands of a very few, who thus make their own prices. In 
order to avoid the frauds committed by the middle-man, it is 
found preferable for the purchaser, who is the user, to deal 
directly with the manufacturer, whereby one is more sure of 
what is being bought. The appearance of this fodder, or even 
its odor, does not enable one to distinguish Avithin what limits 
organic transformations have taken place, and if one is depend- 
ent on the dealer it is recommended to have the product 
properly analyzed by a competent chemist. Both analytical 
and microscopical analyses should be made. Unfortunately 
19 



290 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

the existing fraud is very general. For example the agri- 
cultural station of Halle (Germany) found one-third of the 
samples examined for a period of one year misleading, and over 
8 per cent, absolutel}^ fraudulent. 
Keeping Qualities Peat-molasses mixtures have considerable keeping qualities, 
of peat molasses, as peat in itself does not favor the development of micro-organ- 
isms. Experience appears to show that if these fodders are 
kept in some warm place, they will lose 50 per cent, of their 
moisture. 

It is claimed that the losses during the keeping of peat- 
molasses combinations, as asserted by some, are the outcome of 
faulty observations, as this forage contains in reality very 
little peat, and furthermore the slight acidity of the product 
should be neutralized by the normal alkalinity of the molasses. 
The objection found to this is that the molasses, which is 
alkaline, should become spontaneously acid owing to the action 
of micro-organisms. 

Experience shows that the general molasses combinations 
have not the keeping powers they should have, and after less 
than a year's storage the sugar loss is over 40 per cent., not in- 
cluding the invert sugar formed. In Germany other experi- 
ments have shown that this loss means 60 per cent, for the pro- 
tein and 50 per cent, for the sugar. The leading authorities 
admit that these losses may be attributed to the combined 
action of moisture and micro-organisms, hence the reason why 
such products should undergo a drying process before being 
placed in bags. 
Keeping molasses Molasses may be kept on the farm in a very simple way. 
combinations in Formerly cemented silos were used, but now holes are dug in a 
general. close clay soil and the molasses poured in. The bottom is clay, 
and against the sides are placed boards so as to prevent the dirt 
from falling into the mass. The objection to cemented silos is 
that the residuum soon acts on the cement. Mr. Guttmann 
employs molasses mainly to force the consumption of the 
general wastes of the farm, and uses very little oil meal. 

Molasses Forage Made at tlie Factory. 

Attention is called to cakes of molasses made at the Attigny 



MOLASSES FORAGE MADE AT THE FACTORY. 291 

sugar factory, France. The cakes in question have about the 
following dimensions: 9 inches in length, 4 inches in width, 
and two inches thick, and weighed 650 to 700 grams (an aver- 
age of about 1^ lbs.). They are obtained by mixing 50 lbs. 
molasses (45 per cent, sugar), with 25 lbs. flour and 25 lbs. 
chopped straw. The mass is submitted to a thorough mixing 
and kneading and is then compressed in regular shapes, in 
very much the same apparatus as is used for bricks, and the 
cakes obtained are then baked. The temperature of the oven 
should not be more than 130 to 135° C. (266 to 275° F.); as 
otherwise there would be danger of carbonization. The bak- 
ing lasts IJ hours, during which period about 10 per cent, of 
the moisture is eliminated ; 100 lbs. of the product will give 
90 lbs. of this brick-shaped food. The cakes should be kept in 
some dry place. In practice it has been found that there are 
many advantages in having the forage in cakes of a known size 
and composition, and when the conditions of feeding special 
live stock are determined, it is sufhcient to give to the feeder 
full instructions as to the weight of the product to be used for 
each ration. As the straw used comes from the farm connected 
with the factory, this means an economy in the combination. 
The appliances necessary for the manufacture of the molasses 
fodder under consideration are most simple. The first is a 
mechanical kneading device for mixing the flour, etc. It is 
emptied by simply tipping the mixer forward when the opera- 
tion is finished. To this is a vertical mixer not unlike the 
machine used for residuum beet cossette pressing; it has a 
vertical shaft with projecting axis arranged as a spiral. In the 
cake-making apparatus two bricks are made at the same time,, 
and the movable oven is about six feet in length. The arrange- 
ment at the factory in question is only temporary. Its prac- 
tical working is as follows: Into the mechanical kneader are 
introduced 50 lbs. molasses and 25 lbs. of flour; after twenty 
minutes' mixing and kneading the mass is in a homogeneous 
condition and is emptied over 25 lbs. of chopped straw" at the 
bottom of a square-shaped box placed in the ground, its dimen- 
sions depending upon the volume of the product used. The 
first mixing of the molasses compound and straw is done in the 



292 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

receptacle in question with a shovel or pitchfork, and the com- 
bination is then thrown into the vertical mixer, from which it 
enters the compressor, and is then cooked in the oven. In 
cases where this molasses fodder is to be consumed at once it is 
not compressed, but is simply emptied into small wagons run- 
ning on narrow-gauge tracks to the stable. At the factory 
under consideration, about 4^ lbs. of the product are fed to 
either horses or oxen. The combination in question contains 
about 20 per cent, moisture, and is consequently dryer than the 
original molasses. Upon general principles one might conclude 
that the removal of additional molasses was unnecessary; but 
this idea is a mistake, for the moisture contained in the products 
added might be the cause of fermentation unless the drying 
were continued; and furthermore, both the straw and the flour 
bring with them certain micro-organisms which sooner or later 
exert their destructive influence. 
Molasses combi- 'p]-,g question of the possibility of manufacturing the molasses 

na ion ma e a (.Qj^^i^jj^ations upon the farm has led to a series of very elaborate 
the farm. . • i t i 

investigatrons m the laboratory oi the sugar manufacturers syn- 
dicate of France. The starting point was the Vaury molasses 
cakes containing 60 per cent, molasses and having the following 
composition: 25 to 28 per cent, saccharine substances, 45 to 48 
per cent, hydrocarbons, 9 to 12 per cent, nitrogenous substances 
and 1 per cent, fatty substances. Just what ingredients are 
used is unknown. Its cost, $1.36 per 100 lbs., is and has been 
one of the objections to its general use. The first object in vieAV 
is to utilize any waste material that may be found in the barn 
and to select a substance that may be used to combine with 
molasses, so as to form a solid, nearly dry mass which may be 
readily carried from place to place as it may be called for. In 
the first series of experiments, the drying of the combinations 
was done in an oven. First combination : 100 parts wheat flour, 
2 parts yeast and 50 parts water, well mixed with 100 parts mo- 
lasses at 38° to 39° Be. and 80 parts of pulverized oil cake. It 
is baked in an oven and becomes nearly solid. Second combina- 
tion: 30 parts wheat flour with the requisite water and yeast, 
100 molasses, 80 pulverized oil cake. The resulting cake can 
be readily carried. Third experiment: 25 wheat flour with the 



mixing. 



SIMPLE APPLIANCES FOR MIXING. 293 

requisite water and 3'east ferment, 100 molasses, 100 to 110 pul- 
verized oil cake. It was concluded that the percentage of wheat 
flour was not sufficient. Fourth experiment: 30 wheat flour 
with water and the requisite ferment, combined with 100 molas- 
ses, etc. In the other series of experiments, the preparations 
were heated in a furnace up to the temperature of 95° to 100°. 
Corn flour was found preferable to wheat flour the combination 
used being 100 corn flour, 100 molasses and the I'emainder bran. 
After a thorough mixing, the ration was cooked in a furnace for 
from 9 to 10 hours. It was further considered, in a series of 
practical experiments, what forage was the most suitable to be 
combined with the molasses, and what was the most desirable 
duration of the period of heating or cooking in the furnace. 

In Germany, special molasses mixing appliances are sold for Simple appli- 
$60, their capacity being nearly 500 lbs. per hour. This appar- ^""^ **"' 
atus is about 6 feet long, 12 inches wide and 16 inches deep. 
The mixing shaft has a velocity corresponding to 35 revolutions 
per minute. An apparatus for mixing 3 tons of the fodder per 
hour may be had for $150. In this case the revolving shaft 
turns with a velocity of about 150 revolutions per minute. When 
the molasses combination is finished, it is emptied on a 
cemented floor and allowed to cool. Certain precautionary 
measures are to be taken during the mixing, for there is dan- 
ger of fire; but this danger may be obviated by having a thick- 
ness of only 18 inches of the product during the mixing in the 
special apparatus. After 24 hours' cooling the molasses com- 
bination may be put up in bags and after several days addi- 
tional cooling, it may be stored in warehouses just as sugar is. 

Molasses may be rendered liquid by heating at 70° to 75° R. 
The concentrate is added, and then thoroughly mixed until 
cooling. Experience shows that the mixing tanks should be 
made of wood, rather than iron, and be rather shallow. The 
cost of this operation is very slight, as one man can prepare 
fully two and a half tons of this forage per diem. A mixing 
appliance of the Werner and Pfleiderer system, containing 400 
liters, may produce 5 tons per diem. For concentrates, one 
may use to advantage bran, dried malt, dried brewers' waste, 
etc. The best proportion for this mixing is one part of each. 



294 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



The resulting forage will be all that one can desire, having ex- 
cellent keeping qualities, and not soiling the fingers when 
touched; it has. moreover, a fine appearance, etc. 

The farmer has every advantage in preparing his own com- 
binations, as this always means considerable money saving. 
Furthermore, he has a certain assurance that the product he 
obtains is of the quality anticipated. In order to conduct this 
mixing operation to advantage he can use the waste around his 
barn, or if he has to purchase outside, he should stipulate that 
the material in question shall be at a comparatively low rate. 

Herewith are several German analyses. These compositions, 
taken as a whole, vary with the concentrate used. 



Analyses of Various Molasses Eations. 



Constituents. 


Palm oil 

meal + 

molasses. 


Corn germ + 
molasses. 


Cocoanut 

cake -1- 

molasses. 


Cocoanut 

wastes -h 
molasses. 


Bran -I- 
mol asses. 




I. 


II. 


I. 


11. 


III. 




Water 


Per 
cent. 

16.93 

12.93 

1.64 

26.60 

26.14 
7.80 
7.85 
0.11 


Per 
cent. 

19.74 

12..50 

2.12 

27.93 

15.36 
16.20 
6.12 
0.03 


Per 
cent. 

14.68 

15.37 

3.79 

26.51 

29.45 
3.33 
6.82 
0.02 


Per 
cent. 

2100 


Per 
cent. 

17 dfl 


Per cent. 

20.85 
15.25 
2.19 
29 43 

20.47 
3.07 
8.28 
0.46 


Per cent. 

14.10 

10.99 

1.72 

24.28 

32.12 
7.05 
9.74 


Per cent. 
16 50 


Nitrogenous substances. 
Fatty substances 


14.56 14.02 
1 
3.79 5.78 

25.30 26.00 

26.70 26.70 
2.58 4.32 
6.07 5.78 


11.31 
4.67 
24.20 


Non-nitrogenous sub- 


32 20 




5.52 


Ash 


5 60 


Sand 










Total 


100 go' 100 00 ' 100 00 


inn ni) inn nn 


100.00 


100.00 


100 00 




7.25 7.731 inS7, I 



















Feeding all the Maercker has discussed the question of Avhether a farmer 
molasses from gj^Q^^j^ fgg^j molasses to his cattle rather than the beets 
of land ^^om which the residuum was obtained. He says, we may 
suppose that, to every 2^ hectares (6J acres) there is one head 
of cattle to be fed with molasses. Each 2J hectares is sub- 
mitted to a rotation demanding its cultivation only after four 
years, and the beets resulting from the same correspond to 



VARIOUS USES OF MOLASSES. 295 

40 tons to the hectare (16 tons to the acre). If we assume 
that from the beets at the factory there is obtained 2.5 per cent, 
molasses, the said 2.5 hectares, admitting onl}^ ^ is cultivated in 
beets, will furnish 625 kilos of molasses, which each animal 
will have at its disposal. This corresponds to 1.7 kilos of 
molasses per diem during the entire year, which may be readily 
consumed. 

But it must be noticed that one does not always obtain 40 
tons to the hectare, and furthermore, that the four-years' rota- 
tion is not always practicable. It frequently happens that one 
cow is fed from two hectares. Under these circumstances the 
farmer would have at his disposal only 500 kilos of molasses 
per annum, meaning an allowance of only 1.250 kilos per head 
and per diem. 

However, from what has just been said, it is evident that 
only under exceptional circumstances one is unable to utilize 
all the molasses that results from regular farming; that is 
furnishing the beets to the factory and taking in return 
residuum, pulps and molasses. 

Efforts have been made during recent 3' ears to use this Various uses 
residuum for the preparation of certain chemical combinations. **' ""''^^^*^- 
Numerous modes have for many years been introduced for the 
Avorking of molasses in sugar factories, but have not given the 
results hoped for. 

Various means have been resorted to with a view of increas- 
ing the consumption of sugar and molasses. Among these may 
be mentioned molasses soap; a special introduction for dyeing; 
also the idea proposed by Vincent, for the manufacture of 
ammonium chlorid and methyl chlorid; the object in view 
having been to create an excessively low temperature. The 
methods of Franck and Nycander for the production of fer- 
ments may also be mentioned, and those of Schering for the 
manufacture of levulose. 

It may seem astonishing, but the facts prove that the only 
molasses utilization that has great practical value, when allow- 
ing for its low selling price, is as a feed. This has not received 
the attention from the agricultural authorities that it justly 
deserves. 



296 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

iWolasses for The utilization of molasses for alcohol manufacture is neces- 
alcohol manu- sarily dependent generally upon the market prices of this pro- 
facture. duct, and as there are considerable fluctuations, the industry 
itself has many elements to contend with. As an example, 
during many j^ears in France, special advantages were given to 
molasses distillers, but in 1902 this legislation was changed 
and the residuum can now no longer be profitably used for that 
purpose. This would seem to be a great injustice to individuals 
who have placed their money in an investment which was sup- 
posed to have been backed up by government security. The 
alcohol-molasses industry in France for the time being has 
become a question of the past. 

In this respect, however, it is interesting to note that it is 
within the power of capitalists to overcome this difficulty by 
adding appliances for Avorking up sugar beets to their existing 
distilleries; but when one considers that the residuum of molas- 
ses represents only three and a half per cent, of the raw material 
sliced, it becomes evident that an establishment of this kind 
would mean an enormous money outlay. 

Many of the existing distilleries can handle the molasses re- 
siduum from a plant working 1000 tons of sugar beets per diem. 
A distilleiy that could work up the mash from such a bulk of 
fermented beets would handle several hundred tons of roots in the 
24 hours, and the cost of the diffusers and the other necessary 
appliances would certainly not amount to less than $100,000. 

For many years the molasses-distillers' waste has been utilized 

for the manufacture of potash, soda and potassic chlorid. It 

has also been used for feeding purposes, and as a fertilizer. 

Molasses permits '^^^ "^^ ^* molasses permits the utilization of certain feeds 

the utilization that have undergone more or less transformation during their 

of sligiitly mil- keeping. For example, hay that was slightly tainted was eaten 

(iewed or tainted ^^^jj avidity when combined with 2.2 lbs. molasses diluted in 

feeds. g g -ji^g warm water and oat straw, which stood for 24 hours in 

order to undergo a partial fermentation. With this feed there 

was an increase of weight. The explanation is that the molasses 

is possessed of certain disinfecting properties. 

Molasses as a Considered only from a theoretical standpoint, molasses is a 

fertilizer, most excellent means for returning to the soil the plant foods 



MOLASSES Ao A FERTILIZER. 297 

that have been taken away during cultivation of the crop of 
beets without resorting to the use of expensive manures in order 
to retain the fertihty. Without entering into the various bene- 
ficial results that must necessarily follow from this practice, it 
suffices to say that it stands to reason that if certain mineral 
substances have been absorbed by the beet during its develop- 
ment, these, if returned, will maintain the continued fertility of 
the soil, which maintenance would otherwise have been impos- 
sible, and the benefits derived become even greater when defeca- 
tion scums form part of the fertilizing mixture. 

However, molasses should never be utilized for fertilizing in 
its green state, for many of its elements that are worthless for 
this purpose may render great service in other directions, such 
as cattle feeding, etc. For the farmer, its money equivalent as 
a fertilizer must not be overlooked. Unfortunately, however, 
in the United States the problem of returning the plant food to 
the soil has been, up to the present, too frequently neglected. 

If one makes allowance for the fact that molasses contains, 
on an average, 1.5 per cent, of nitrogen, and 5 to 6 per cent, of 
oxid of potassium, and that in the excrements of animals fed 
upon this product may be found 1 per cent, of nitrogen with 5 
per cent, of oxid of potassium, 0.03 per cent, to 0.06 per cent, 
phosphoric acid, 0.3 per cent, to 0.5 per cent, lime, and about 
50 per cent, non-nitrogenous substances, one may conclude 
that molasses, as a forage, has a greater commercial and rural 
value than is generally supposed, for the simple reason that to 
its nourishing value must be added its subsequent use as a 
manure. Nearly all the foods that plants need are found in the 
droppings of the animals fed. 

Sugar in the animal economy may play an important role, 
mainly in the formation of fat. Consequently it is of greater 
advantage to allow these hydro-carbons to pass through the an- 
imal's body, than it would be to resort to any preliminary effort 
of its use as a fertilizer, for the simple reason that the mineral 
elements always pass through the body of the animal without 
undergoing chemical changes. 

In Germany there are produced 400,000 tons of molasses that 
contain 5,200 tons of nitrogen, corresponding to 28,000 tons of 



298 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Chilien Baltpetre. Furthermore, this product contains 28,000 
tons of potassium oxid. It necessarily follows that if all the 
molasses were utilized, farmers would have at their disposal 
an excellent fertilizing material of the value of $1,000,000. In 
Germany it was recommended that, in consideration of the low 
selling price of molasses, the product be practically used as a 
fertilizer, but this idea was very illogical, as it would be throw- 
ing away without any possible profit the money that might be 
derived from the sugar contained in this residuum, to say noth- 
ing of the non-nitrogenous substances to be found in it. 

By the use of molasses as a forage the fai^mer returns all the 
salts that had been previously taken from the soil, which in 
other words means all the plant foods that have been extracted 
by the plant during its growth. Furthermore, there is another 
advantage derived from this molasses feeding, which is that the 
money profits derived from the same are generally greater than 
would have been realized if the residuum were employed for 
the extraction of sugar. 
Analysis of The Association of Austrian Chemists, during 1901, made the 
molasses feeds, following resolutions: That the molasses forage combinations 
should be thoroughly mixed, and that the precaution be taken 
to constantly bring to the top the lower strata of the feeds, as it 
is there that the molasses always settles. An average sample of 
500 grams should be dried at 100° C. and afterwards thoroughly 
pulverized. Without a previous understanding, this sample 
should be used for the analysis. The desiccation is done in a 
small tared receptacle having a suitable stopper hermetically 
closing the same. 

The total nitrogen is estimated by the Kjeldahl method. 
To 1 gram of this substance with mercury add 30 cc. concen- 
trated sulphuric acid. This acid is used in excess on account 
of the sulphurous acid liberated. 

The nitrogen of the albuminoids is determined upon 1 gram 
of the substance sprinkled with 100 cc. of water heated to boil- 
ing point, 25 cc. of a 6 per cent, solution of copper sulphate 
and 25 cc. of a 12.5 per cent, caustic soda. The addition of the 
soda is arranged so as not to precipitate all the copper. This 
precipitate is rapidly deposited and is filtered, and then washed 



ANALYSIS OF MOLASSES FEEDS. 299 

with water until all sulphate reaction disappears in the filtrate 
under the action of barium chlorid. It is important to men- 
tion in the analysis what method has been adopted for the esti- 
mation, and furthermore to state whether the gastric juice of a 
pig or commercial pepsin has been employed. First of all the 
molasses should be removed, and five grams of the pulverized 
feed are Avashed in 100 cc. of cold water. This water should 
be added drop by drop, using asbestos as a filtering surface, 
and then following by an ether extraction. 

The sugar estimation is made by the usual method of polar- 
ization. 

Other non-nitrogenous extractible substances are determined 
by subtracting from 100 the water, fatty substances, sugar, cel- 
lulose, ash and nitrogenous substances multiplied by 6.25. 

The cellulose is determined, according to Weender, with 3 
grams of sulphuric acid and caustic potash. 

The ash is estimated upon 10 grams in a porcelain capsule 
heated in a special muffle furnace, such as is used in sugar fac- 
tories. 

The molasses percentage is estimated by assuming that the 
sample polarizes 50. The nitrogenous substances, estimated 
by -using the factor 6.25, should be shown upon the analysis 
bulletin, and never as raw protein. 

The nitrogen of albuminoids, determined according to Stutter, 
multiplied by 6.25, is known as an albuminoid combination. 
The nitrogenous substances last found are called amide acids. 

The difference between non-assimilated nitrogen multiplied 
by 6.25 and the albuminoid combinations is called assimilated 
albuminoid substance. 

It is recommended as far as possible to make a thorough mi- 
croscopic examination of the absorbing substances used. It is 
desirable, when examining peat molasses feeds, not to estimate 
the nitrogen in all its combinations, but simply to mention the 
total nitrogen that it contains. 

The Miiller method unfortunatel}^ can be applied only to fresh 
combinations. Twenty-five grams of the forage are constantly 
stirred up with 250 grams of water. One hundred cc. of this 
solution are treated by 15 to 20 mgr. of tannin, 10 cc. of sub- 



300 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

acetate of lead, 10 cc. of a 5 per cent, solution of alum, and a 
very small quantity of hydrated alumina. This is mixed, fil- 
tered and polarized. The molasses added to the forage is sup- 
posed to contain 48 per cent, of sugar. To determine the fatty 
substances, the forage is heated in an oven at 100° C. for three 
hours; it is then reduced to a powder, two grams of which are 
weighed in a porcelain capsule, and subsequently placed under 
an air-exhausting apparatus. The molasses is extracted by cold 
water, the remaining product dried, and submitted to the dis- 
solving power of ether for 15 hours. Under these circumstances 
there is no saponification of the fatty substances. The details 
of the operations that follow it is unnecessary to describe. 

The fact is that the whole question of molasses fodder analysis 
has been widely discussed, so much so that a special congress 
of the German experiment stations was held some years since, 
and they centered their attention upon the Neubauer method. 
It is declared that this special forage has but little if any influ- 
ence on polarized light, and if this molasses combination had 
any polarizing power it would be necessary to establish special 
compensating factors for each combination under consideration. 

As regards the invert sugar that is formed during keeping 
and is mainly due to the influence of high temperature, it be- 
comes important to polarize the solution after inversion in order 
to form some exact idea of the sugar percentage. The polariza- 
tion gives exact results only for certain forages. 

According to Emmerling, in order to estimate the nutritive 
value of a forage made with molasses, one should take |- of the 
nutritive value of sugar as the nutritive value of nitrogenous 
non-albuminous substances, of the molasses that are contained 
in quantities corresponding to eight times less than the sugar and 
having the same nutritive equivalent as carbohydrates. It is 
important to estimate the sugar, the fatty substances and the 
protein. The data obtained is multiplied by the nutritive value 
of each of these, allowing for the amids of molasses the same 
equivalent as sugar, and it is upon this basis that one should 
compensate for any error that might be made and thereby bring 
about a certain harmony between purchaser and buyer. 



PART FIFTH. 



Feeding witli Sugar. 

What becomes of sugar formed in the liver and carried to all 
parts of the body by the blood ? What is its role ? 

Sugar, as its composition shows, contains carbon, oxygen and 
hydrogen. The carbon throws out in burning, or oxidizing, 
carbonic acid, water and heat, which may be transformed into 
work and energy. It is concluded from this that sugar produces 
at least a portion of the animal heat, and recent experiments 
show beyond cavil, that we must also look to the same material 
for the muscular energy or work. 

It is to Mr. Chauveau that the credit is justly due for the en- 
tire investigations upon this most important subject, as before 
his time the theories advanced were certainly most erroneous. 

A celebrated authority such as Claude Bernard enunciated 
the theory that sugar disappeared in the lungs. As early as 
1856 Chauveau showed that there were traces of sugar in the 
entire arterial circulation which gradually disappeared in produc- 
ing heat. He enunciated his ideas about as follows: 

" Energy devoted to the production of work always means 
muscular energy, and in all cases has for its principal starting 
point the combustion of glycogen, with which the tissues of the 
organs are impregnated. Blood becomes poorer in glucose, 
during its general capillary circulation, and mainly in the mus- 
cular tissues." 

Chauveau has shown that there existed a relation between 
muscular energy, glycogen production and the destruction of 
sugar in the blood. These investigations were mainly centered 
upon horses, showing the exchange that took place in the blood 
passing through muscles at rest and during work. As an ex- 
ample the muscles used during mastication and the glands se- 
creting sahva were watched during this study. The law, which 

(301) 



Preliminary 
remarl(s. 



Chauveau's 

theory. 



302 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

was the outcome of this experiment, was based upon the influ- 
ence of the woriv of an organ of the body upon organic combus- 
tion and also upon the sugar consumed. Chauveau further says: 

"The work accomplished by the organs during their physio- 
logical activity, indicates that the amount of sugar that disap- 
pears during rest is less than during work. It is proportional to 
the combustion, which is the natural outcome of the working of 
the organs proper." 

An example will give a general idea of the contrast between 
sugar destruction in the blood, during rest and during work. 
Blood passing through a special muscle of a horse's mouth dur- 
ing a given time, and while at rest, viz. : when it is not eating, 
will throw out an amount of carbonic acid corresponding to 20.4. 
While eating, the amount of carbonic acid thrown off was 69. 55. 
In other words, during the muscular activity of simple masti- 
cation the amount of carbonic acid evolved is increased to 69.55 
during work, that is, this activity alone demands a consumption 
in the muscle of over three times that which is necessary during 
rest. 

If one estimates the amount of glucose that disappears in the 
blood that passes through a muscle during rest and during work, 
as based upon the experiments of Chauveau and Kauffmann, 
there is a glucose combustion of 0.12 grams in the first case, and 
0.41 grams during work. We may conclude from this that the 
blood passing through a muscle absorbs during its activity more 
than three times the amount of sugar that is consumed during 
rest. From this we may further conclude there is a certain 
correlation existing between the loss of sugar in the blood and in 
the increased combustion during the physiological activity of 
the muscle. Such being the case, there is apparently no doubt 
that sugar is a direct factor in the question of muscular activity, 
and this has been the starting point for the re-organization of the 
daily rations allowed, not only to soldiers, but to horses, in 
nearly all of the European armies. 
Practical tests Examples almost without limit can be given of tests upon two 
upon men. regiments of soldiers, one mounted and the other unmounted, 
one consuming sugar and the other without sugar, where the 
amount of work accomplished was certainly in favor of the 



FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 303 

sugar ration. Much remains to be done in this special direc- 
tion, but what has been accomplished is certainly a hint as to 
future possibilities. 

Schonberg has noticed the excellent results that may be de- 
rived from sugar feeding, and which were based upon a very 
simple experiment of giving only 30 grams of supplementary 
sugar to a gang of workmen; this alone was sufficient to prolong 
their efforts for several hours without anj'' perceptible fatigue. 

Such being the case, it stands to reason that the breeder has Advantages to 
every advantage, in introducing a reasonable amount of sugar the breeder, 
into the dail}^ rations of the animals under his care, when the 
opportunity presents itself. 

It is interesting to note that investigations relative to the in- 
fluence of sugar upon muscular energy have become extremely 
popular during the last few years. It is not long since that the 
theory obtained that nitrogenous substances were always respon- 
sible for muscular activity. Hence the animals, from whom 
considerable work was demanded, were fed upon very narrow 
rations. 

Sugar for cattle feeding commenced in the fifties in Continental 
Europe, but as we have before pointed out, the utilization of 
sugar for this purpose goes back to the early part of the last 
century, and, notwithstanding constant agitation arguing in feeding of sugar 
favor of its importance, it is only within comparatively recent to cattle in the 
years that the practice has made- any important progress, f^rly part of 
Strange as it may seem, as early as 1800 the British market was '^^* century, 
almost glutted with sugar and it was during the years that fol- 
lowed, that several interesting pamphlets were written upon 
sugar in cattle feeding. The arguments then advanced are true 
at the present time, and there is now a threatened overproduc- 
tion. The sugar consumption was very small a hundred years 
ago, hence the several sugar islands could more than meet the 
demand. The situation in 1901 has changed; sugar has be- 
come almost a household necessity, and the beet sugar and cane 
sugar, in their efforts to meet the demand, have thrown upon 
the market a volume of this commodity, which has resulted in 
a constant fall in price, giving a just cause of alarm to all inter- 
ested. Efforts are being made in Continental Europe to popu- 



304 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

larize and increase the demand for sugar; new theories have 
been introduced showing that sugar means strength, which is 
in direct contradiction to the views entertained not many years 
since by most of the medical authorities. 

Early arguments for feeding sugar were, that one shilling's 
worth of sugar will save two shillings' worth of hay, and that dis- 
solved sugar added to either haj'' or straw will increase the value 
and quality of the hay or straw. In 1809 it was declared in 
England that ' ' if the use of sugar once becomes general, the 
price of butchers' meat must certainly be lower, for this plain 
reason, a much greater quantity of young stock could be raised 
in many parts of the kingdom, where they now cannot do it, 

* * * butchers' meat would come within reach of multitudes. 
Another good effect arising from the use of sugar would be, 
keeping at home a considerable sum of money which is sent 
out every year to the ports of our enemies for butter and 
cheese." It is interesting to note the important role sugar 
was to play in the navy, such as in the East India Com- 
pany's service. For "every vessel going on a long voyage 

* * * one-half the quantity of ha}^ at present consumed on 
board ship will be sufficient, with the addition of a little mo- 
lasses or sugar, which occupies so much less room and comes 
so much cheaper; so that it will have this good effect. * * * 
Straw, which may be had in most places, or any coarse matter 

* * * may, by the addition of a little sugar or molasses, be 
converted into a most nutritive and wholesome food, much 
superior to hay in point of quality." It was suggested that 
experiments be made in feeding horses with sugar; it was even, 
one hundred years ago, pointed out that a horse fed on sugar 
will show signs of improved condition and have a glossy shining 
coat, etc. It was then argued that there were certain dangers 
of over-feeding with sugar, as the animal would become "soft;" 
with molasses given in small quantities the same difficulties 
were not to be dreaded. It was recommended that molasses be 
given either in their drink in the stable bucket, mixed with 
water, or properly diluted and sprinkled among their chaff, in 
which case the quantity of hay may be reduced until by degrees 
none need be given. The great advantages of sugar for stall-fed 



FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 305 

horses and cattle were thoroughly appreciated in the early part 
of the century; attention was called to the fact that when put 
to grass they " will begin to fill and thrive forthwith." On the 
other hand, "cattle, taken from a straw-j^ard where they have 
been indifferently fed during the winter, must be a considerable 
time on the grass before they recover from the starvation, and, 
consequentl}', take up so much time and food to no other pur- 
pose, which a thriving animal will convert to immediate profit." 
Some enthusiasts went so far as to insist upon it that sugar was 
in reality the principal nutrient found in all feeding stuffs, 
which has long since been proven to be a very erroneous hypo- 
thesis. 

Experiments were made upon various animals to deter- 
mine the practical effects of sugar-feeding; one of the most 
interesting of these was on an old horse, eighteen years of age, 
which had been turned out to grass, but which in time was 
nothing but flesh and bones, and was condemned to be shot; 
the first week's feeding was with hay and straw, chaff and one- 
quarter pound molasses diluted with water; the oats allowance 
was reduced to a quart a da3^ After eight days the molasses 
allowance was increased to half a pound per diem, and at the 
end of a ''fortnight there was a visible alteration in the appear- 
ance of the horse." After the third week the molasses allow- 
ance was still further increased and the animal fed underwent 
a complete change. In feeding cows with sugar some special 
advice was given. "It is of particular importance to be very 
economical as to the quantity given; for whilst a small addition 
of it to their usual food wall be found to improve the quality of 
their milk, too much, and but a very little too much, will cause 
them to run to beef more, perhaps, than milk * * * brown 
sugar is found to contain a considerable quantity of vegetable 
or essential oil * * * the use of molasses must be the means of 
a great increase of profit to the butter dairy, and particularly as 
it can be so conveniently had in winter time, when succulent 
food is scarce." If sugar were employed in winter, it would 
diminish the quantity of butter imported. " Sugar or molasses 
will never from its purity impart any bad taste to the milk, 
whilst turnips and cabbages, the principal dependence in winter, 
20 



306 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

are both of them apt to give a most rank and disagreeable taste 
to both butter and milk." A hundred years ago it was justly 
argued that "should the plan of using molasses become general, 
we may soon expect to see butter dairies established in the most 
remote and barren districts of the kingdom." It was urged in 
regard to the use of sugar in the West Indies and the British 
East Indies (for the colonies were badly supplied with beef) 
that if sugar feeding were resorted to "there is no reason why 
they should not have beef nearly if not entirely as good as that 
fed in England." 

The following original argument was advanced relative to 
cattle feeding in very hot climates — "the heat of the climate 
is not inimical to the operation of fattening so much as the rays 
of the sun, and if this is properly observed it will clear up a 
mistake very prevalent. The heat of the weather, at least of the 
West Indies, is verj much in favor of fattening. It is necessary 
to observe that cattle should be most carefully screened from 
the rays of the sun. * * * They must be well supplied with 
water as fresh as possible, into which there should be put as 
much acid, made of fermented sugar-wash, as will give it a 
pleasant astringent taste in the mouth, and I would by all 
means recommend a liberal supply of salt, which is particularly 
palatable to cattle. * =i^ * A beast getting a sufficient quantity 
will fatten much sooner, and less food in proportion will do for 
him than if he did not get any, but above all things it is neces- 
sary in a warm climate. * * * It is recommended that the wort 
which is given to cattle in any hot climate be made for some 
time before using — just long enough to let it go through as much 
fermentation as will give it a certain vinosity in its taste, and 
take off from that heaviness which all sweets are apt to have, 
and which would perhaps otherwise pall upon the appetite and 
prevent the animals taking a sufficient quantity." 

Early discussion on cattle feeding with sugar contain many 
practical suggestions. " Cattle that are out in the open pasture, 
where they have plenty of water, do not need much attendance; 
but where they are confined in a house closely tied up, and 
have not anything but what is given them, a very little neglect 
on the part of their keeper will show on them; and though the 



FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 307 

cause may remain concealed, the effect will be very evident. 
An injudicious application of the food, giving too much or too 
little, neglect of watering, in short, any deviation from what is 
proper will prevent the beast thriving." It was urged that no 
experiments in feeding sugar to cattle be done by persons who 
may neglect details, for the results obtained would be very mis- 
leading. 

Oil cake in feeding had at first a certain opposition to con- 
tend with, but in the end it became popular. Those using the 
product claimed that the resultant meat had a peculiar taste, 
which differed from that obtained when the cattle were fed upon 
grass. An interesting fact was noticed, that cattle thus fed 
" travelled very badly and fell away on the road. These objec- 
tions by no means exist in the use of sugar; so far from com- 
municating anything disagreeable to the beef, it gives it all that 
fine rich taste and marbled appearance of the finest grass-fed 
meat. * * * In the West Indian trade it is the custom to feed 
cattle in those islands with oil cakes. * * * One is surprised 
that the most nutritive food in nature * * * has been thrown 
in their way," and not used. As regards feeding molasses to 
sheep, it was declared that the condition and appearance of the 
animals would change if the product was given a fair trial. The 
proposed manner of feeding was as follows: "Let a quantity 
of molasses, diluted in water, be sprinkled with a common 
gardener' s-pot and have the sheep driven to the spot; they will 
not be long there till they find something very palatable in the 
taste of the grass. * * * They will eat the grass down to the 
root. By this means they eat away the heart, and in a very 
short time it will perish and totally disappear, leaving room for 
a more valuable and useful kind to grow, which the dung of the 
sheep will contribute to encourage." 

As regards pen feeding, it was declared that " with molasses 
and chaff of any description placed in troughs, a mode of man- 
agement which they will soon come into, they will thrive as 
well as if wandering over a large pasture. When they once 
become accustomed to it, the farmer will find it the most ex- 
peditious mode of fattening and by far the cheapest; a sheep on' 
sugar-feeding will carry a quantity of fat meat, greater in pro- 



308 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



portion than on grass-feeding and in a much shorter time." 
While it was once thought that it was not desirable to rear 
litters of pigs during the winter without the assistance of the 
dairy, it ma)?- be readily "proved that molasses may be used in 
rearing young pigs with equal advantage as milk, that they 
will thrive equally well upon it at any season of the year, 
amply paying for their keeping, and their litters may be reared 
as well in winter as in summer." The president of the board 
of agriculture wrote to Ed. T. Waters, Esq., in 1809, asking 
the following questions in regard to his experiments with 
molasses in cattle feeding. 



Question. 

(1) What had been the food of the 
stock previous to the experiments? 

(2) Were they lean, in good order, 
or advanced in their fattening ? 

(3) Were they confined to stalls or 
ranging in the field ? 

(4) The progress of the quantity of 
sugar given, and what other food 
eaten at the same time ? 



(5) Did the sugar agree with the 
stock ? 

(6) Eespecting the state of their 
dung? 



(7) Were any trials made on the 
addition of such substances as would 
prevent the use of sugar for common 
domestic purposes? 

(8) How long was the trial con- 
tinued ? 

(9) A local question of price. 

(10) Was any memorandum made 
of the water drunk more or less than 
when on other food ? 



Answer. 

(1) Grass. 

(2) Good store condition on the 
first of October, when put to molasses. 

(3) Tied up in stalls the first of 
October, the time of taking from 
grass. 

(4) What hay they would eat, say 
three trusses per ox per week, with 
one pound and a half of molasses to 
three gallon buckets of water; half a 
pound in each bucket per day. 

(5) Perfectly. 

(6) The dung is an object of mate- 
i-ial attention, as it is the criterion of 
their doing well or ill; it should 
come from them in state of consist- 
ency, not to soil themselves. 

(7) Certainly not. 



(8) My vai'ious expei'iments are of 
two years' standing. 

(10) They require less than on 
other food. 



SUGAR FOR GENERAL FEEDING. 309 

(11) Were any observations made (11) Nothing could exceed the 
on the quality of the flesh produced quality of the flesh, and from the 
by this food ? If any trials were trial I made on milch cows it cer- 
made on milch cows, what was the tainly greatly improved their condi- 
effect on the quality and quantity of tion without any visible increase of 
the milk ? the quantity of milk. 

(12) From the result of your trials, (12) The use of the molasses must 
have you found any estimate of the depend on the price of every other 
price at which this article of food article of a fattening tendency, 
would be profitable in the use? 

(13) Were the stock weighed alive (13) No weight of stock taken at 
at the commencement of the experi- the time of putting up; their value 
ment, or the value ascertained by increased in as great a proportion as 
other means ? if fed by any other means. 

(14) Were the stock slaughtered (14) The two former sets of oxen 
from sugar or put to other food? If were slaughtered from molasses; the 
the latter, were they weighed alive, last two oxen deemed worthy of 
to ascertain the increase — weight notice at Lord Somerville' s show were 
gained by the sugar? fed on molasses the 1st of February, 

and the remaining month upon cake. 

But between 1850 and 1860 some German investigations were 
the starting point of considerable information on the subject, 
and deserve more than a passing notice. 

It was very natural that as sugar had been used in the form of 
molasses for forage combinations, the use of sugar alone should 
have been thought of. The only obstacle in the way was its 
excessive price; but in 1874, after the duty on sugar had been 
doi^e away with in England, renewed efforts were made to feed 
cattle with it, and little by little this has become a regular prac- 
tice in that country. 

In Brazil, chickens and the like have been fed with sugar for Sugar for gen- 
many years back. In India it is frequently customary to sub- f''^' feeding. 
stitute a portion of cereal for sugar in feeding, with the view to 
economy. 

Sugar gives to all animals to which it is fed the best of ap- 
pearance, explained by the fact that it is a rational substance, 
and the mammifera consume considerable quantities in the milk 
during their early feeding. However, it must be noticed that 
saccharose does not produce the most desirable effects in all 
cases, and this may be, in a measure, accounted for by de- 
fective digestive organs which vary with the individual. 



310 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

If sugar is not administered too crudely, heavy rations can 
do very little harm. The absorption is accomplished in the 
stomach and in the large intestine. There need be no fear as 
regards intestinal fermentation. In the case of certain animals, 
such as pigs and horses, large quantities of sugar can be retained 
in the stomach and yet undergo no fermentation; when this 
does occur, it will be produced in the large intestine. 

In the case of ruminants, Werther has noticed various 
digestive complications. Forages when combined with sugar 
undergo a slow fermentation in the first stomach, in which 
comparatively little absorption occurs. A certain portion of the 
cellulose is dissolved, while the other hydrocarbons undergo 
changes that are in direct ratio to their solubility and their 
quantity, and for the stock under consideration, a forage con- 
taining a large amount of sugar is not desirable. 

On the other hand, it may be advantageously used in cases 
where animals have but one stomach. This decreased digesti- 
bility in the case of ruminants has long since been noticed by 
Grouven and discussed by him very fully. 

Lawes has demonstrated that there is every advantage in 
giving and feeding greater quantities of albuminoids in those 
cases where considerable sugar is used. 
Feeding sugar Some very important experiments have been made in the 
to calves, north of France in feeding sugar to calves. The ration consisted 
mainly of oleomargarine and raw sugar. Every one knows of 
the value of milk in feeding very young animals, but it is an 
expensive food and does not give results commensurate with its 
cost. For many years past efforts have been made to re- 
move the cream and substitute in its place a less costly pro- 
duct, such as cod-liver oil, etc. Several appliances consequently 
came into existence, permitting a thorough mixing of skimmed 
milk with fatty substances. The first experiments in this direc- 
tion were made in this country in the New England States. If 
oleomargarine is used, it should be heated to 45° to 50° C. 
(113°-122° F. ), and then placed in the mixer; raw sugar is 
added in the proportion of two parts sugar for one part oleo- 
margarine. When this combination was fed to the calves they 
fattened at a rate of over 2 lbs. per diem. The resulting meat, 



FEEDING SUGAR TO PIGS. 311 

while not of the very first quality, brought a very satisfactory 
price on the market. The French experiments were upon the 
same lines. By commencing with 60 grams per diem (2. 10 oz. ) 
it is possible to force the consumption of oleomargarine to 480 
grams (about 1 lb.) for two calves, this being combined with 
about 18 quarts of skimmed milk. At first about y'^- of an 
ounce of sugar was used for every quart of milk fed. These 
experiments lasted from November until February. The orig- 
inal weight of the calves was 110 lbs., and their final weight 
311 lbs., the daily increase being about 2.3 lbs. 

Practical experiments in Germany seem to show that there is Feeding sugar 
more money to be made in feeding sugar to pigs at the actual '*• P'S^- 
price of the market, than to sell it in its raw state. Examples 
may be given showing that when sugar was selling at $2 per 
cwt. the resulting increase in swine flesh was worth more than 
double that amount. Hence if pound per pound increase can 
be gained by sugar feeding there is that much financial profit. 

Experiments in Germany were made upon pigs undergoing 
two modes of feeding: one wdth and the other without sugar. 
The increase in one case was 570 grams per diem, and the other 
600 grams, which data, however, offers nothing especially char- 
acteristic or interesting. 

It was proposed that the protein percentage should be in- 
creased in the rations during a period of four weeks, the normal 
ration with four pigs being per individual and per diem 550 
grams while with sugar it was 1 kilo. This increase of weight 
of 1 kilo per diem, Maercker says, is a new departure in pig. 
feeding, and in order to be profitably applied, it demands spe- 
cial privileges in the way of government taxation. This, it is 
thovight, may be a starting point for numerous changes in the 
whole question. 

The most recent experiments in this direction were with a 
ration consisting of potatoes, milk, crushed barley and sugar, 
having a nutritive ratio of 1:8, feeding as much as 12 kilos of 
sugar per 1000 kilos live weight; pigs of an average weight of 
50 kilos to 55 kilos showed an increase in weight per diem of 
957 grams, while without sugar, and using the same ration, the 
increase was only 500 grams. 



312 FEEDING WITH SUGAE BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

The Proskau Milk Institution undertook experiments in 
feeding to pigs a mixture of sugar, rye bran and pulverized meat 
to determine the- economical yield of milk under the respective 
influences of the substances mentioned; it was concluded that 
for fattening, sugar does not give the same economical results as 
cheap fodders, notwithstanding the fact that its use gives excel- 
lent results. As to the quality of the resulting meat, its constit- 
uents were the least satisfactory. Other experiments of the 
same kind were conducted at another institution, their object 
Comparison be- being to determine the comparative value of sugar, starch and 
tween sugar and niolasses. The combinations were such as to retain the same 
quantities of protein, fatty constituents and non-nitrogenous 
substances in each fodder used. The molasses was always better 
than sugar for the purpose in view. Molasses, however, could 
never prove economical, unless the cost of a pound of sugar in 
that form was less than the cost of a pound of starch. Molasses did 
not give any special characteristic to the flesh of the animal fed. 
Opinions re- According to Zimmermann, 1 kilo of sugar is followed by 
specting sugar 0.72 kilo increase of weight. Lehmann states that this same 
quantity of sugar will give ^ kilo of fat. It is to be noticed 
that the fat produced under these circumstances is flabby, but 
as a geiTeral rule the marketable meat increases. The amount 
that can be fed to growing pigs is 0.5 to 0.75 kilo of first-grade 
sugar per head and per diem. It is found desirable to add to 
the ration 10 grams of salt. 

In conclusion, as regards the question of pig feeding with 
sugar, it is to be noted that the best results are obtained with 
these animals. They do not like sugar, but their organism is 
so arranged as to derive a benefit from it. 

Numerous experiments have been made in feeding sheep 

with sugar, but most of them have not been a success. 

Special sugar Mention should also be made of the experiments of Hlavitschka 

combinations, and Drucker, who have transformed fresh blood into a condition 

that will possess keeping power, by the addition of salt and 

alcohol. This product is heated to 100° C. with a forage, and 

is then covered with a slight layer of sugar. 

Economic In Continental Europe a question which is constantly dis- 

considerations. cogged, is the utilization of the over-production of beet sugar. 



SUGAR RATIONS FOR BULLS AND HEIFERS. 313 

Now that there are excellent prospects of the United States 
manufacturing all the sugar consumed, beet-sugar manufact- 
urers of France and Germany are asking themselves to what 
new use can sugar be put? The cheapness of sugar oh the 
British market has been the starting point of a new jam and 
other allied industries, and efforts have been made to feed cattle 
with sugar that sold for two cents a pound. On certain farms 
coming under the writer's notice satisfactory results have been 
obtained. In some experimental stations of France the question 
has been seriously discussed, and the experiments made by 
M. Malpeaux, professor of an influential agricultural school of 
the country'' are of interest. The importance of sugar in the 
development of muscle was above referred to, but it is interest- 
ing to add that sugar, which is a carbohydrate, also fattens and 
nourishes man or animal when it is eaten. with certain modera- 
tion. During the entire century the authorities have never 
exactly agreed as to the origin of fat in the animal frame, but 
of late the question has been settled, and the experiments at 
Rothamsted, England, have demonstrated beyond cavil that 
sugar could be transformed into fat. 

The practical experiments recently made in France upon Experimental 
bulls and heifers are of more than ordinary interest. The ^"^^"^ "*'*"^ 
daily rations consisted of 4.4 lbs. ^clover hay, 11 lbs. oat straw, . ., 
66 lbs. special corn fodder, 2.2 lbs. cotton oil cake, 2.2 lbs. 
grin dings of rye and beans, to which was added one pound of 
sugar. The experiments lasted fifty days; during the first 
twenty-five days only one bull received sugar, the other animal 
being used as a standard of comparison; the result was a gain 
in weight of 6.6 lbs. in favor of sugar. The roles were reversed 
during the next twenty-five days with an increase of 8.8 lbs. in 
favor of sugar. The increase of live weight for the bulls with 
sugar rations was 79.2 lbs., while without sugar it was 63.8 lbs., 
or a gain of 15.4 lbs. With sugar the first bull had a daily 
increase of 1.5 lbs., and without sugar the increase was 1.3 lbs. ; 
with sugar the increase per diem of the second bull was 1.7 lbs., 
and without sugar, 1.3 lbs. With the heifers the increase was 
even more evident; the first heifer with sugar had a daily 
increase of 1.7 lbs., and without sugar, 1.5 lb.; with sugar the 



314 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

increase per diem of the second heifer was 1.85 lbs., and with- 
out sugar, 1.4 lbs. The conclusion is that the average daily 
increase in favor of sugar varied from 0.2 lb. to 0.4 lb. An 
interesting calculation has been made respecting the money- 
profits of sugar-feeding over and above the regular rations, and 
it is found that for the two bulls it was 11 cents, for the two 
heifers 32 cents, which amounts are hardly worth considering. 
Influence of Very important observations have been made respecting the 
sugar upon influence of sugar upon the quantity of milk. Experiments 
were made upon four cows, and were conducted very much the 
same as the foregoing. The conclusions were that sugar does 
not increase the flow of milk, nor does it increase the fatty sub- 
stances. It was also shown that sugar in the ration has no 
influence upon the casein and the percentage of lactose is not 
modified. Mineral salts were found to be 7 per cent, with or 
without sugar. The proportion of free and volatile acids in- 
creases in butter from cows having received sugar in moderate 
quantities. The fact is, none of these experiments can be con- 
sidered as conclusive; hence the importance of still further in- 
vestigation. It is thought that if it w^ere possible to determine 
by a certain formula the amount of sugar to be used in com- 
bination with a well-combined ration very different results 
from those under consideration would be obtained, and 
the advantages of sugar would then be demonstrated; but 
as this has yet to be done, the present outlook does not seem 
favorable for its general use when milk, cream and butter are 
the objects in view. On the other hand, for fattening purposes 
there can be no doubt that in countries where sugar is very 
cheap, such as England, a farmer would find it to his advantage 
to use sugar in the daily rations of animals being fattened. 
Feeding horses As early as 1880 Prof. Grandeau commenced a series of ex- 
wrth sugar, periments in Paris to determine what sort of feed was best 
suited for horses, when at rest in the stable, when walking and 
trotting, also when working slowly and rapidly, etc. All these 
experiments, without an exception, have led to the very im- 
portant conclusion that for the producton of energy and work 
the most important element to be furnished is an ample supply 
of carbohydrates; nitrogen entered the working ration to make 



FEEDING HORSES WITH SUGAR. 



315 



up for slight muscle losses. The important part of the con- 
clusion is that there is an actual economy in the utilization of 
the amylaceous principles of fodders as compared with the 
nitrogenous elements. During 1898 experiments were made to 
determine what influence sugar had when fed in different 
quantities. The full details of the observations are not at 
hand, but an outline of the principal results is not without 
interest. The experiments were upon three horses, as near the 
same build, age, weight, etc., as was possible. All the urine 
and excrements were collected and analyzed; the weight of the 
fodder consumed was exactly determined; the volume of water 
drunk exactly noted; the horses were weighed several times a 
dsLj. The quantity of sugar fed daily varied from 600 grams 
to 2.400 kilos (1.32 lbs. to 5.4 lbs.) per diem. The feeds used, 
either alone or combined with sugar, were hay, oat-straw and 
corn. Maltine was the principal source of nitrogen. The fol- 
lowing table shows the results: 

Experimental Eations Fed to Horses (1898). 



Feed. 


Substances digested per 
horse and per diem. 


Digestible 
substances 

per ] 00 
kilos, live 

weight. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Caloric 
value. 




Nitrogenous. 


Non-nitro- 
genous. 




Grams. 

263.8 

318.4 
778.1 
243.0 


Grams. 
•2,979.5 

4,298.2 

4,388.6 

5,422 


Kilos. 
7,800 

11,300 

18,100 

13,900 


1:11.3 
1:13.6 
1:5.6 
1:22.3 


Cal. 
13,429.4 


Hay and sugar 


19,070.7 
21,572.6 


Corn and sugar 


23.339.6 



The practical conclusions to be drawn from these different 
rations are given in the following table: 

Kesults of Eations as to Work and Weight (1898). 



Feed. 


Work accom- 
plished. 


AVater drunk 

per kilo of dry 

substance. 


Daily variation in 

the weight of 

the horse. 




Kilogrammeter. 
230,189 

230,497 

221,906 

262,920 


3,833 
3,000 
3,900 
1,900 


Kilos. 
—0.300 


Hay and sugar 


+0.120 




4-0.128 


Corn and sugar 


-0.200 







316 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

This data shows that of all the feeds used for working horses, 
hay is the least desirable for keeping the animal in a normal 
condition. The maximum work was accomplished with a 
ration containing the smallest percentage of nitrogenous ele- 
ments (243 grams ration corn and sugar), and the richest in 
hydrocarbons, mainly sugar (5.422 kilos, or nearly 12 lbs.). 
The work increased with the caloric value of the ration, and the 
sugar ration in every respect was the most desirable. An inter- 
esting paradox in these experiments, and to many it will be a 
source of astonishment, was that the thirst of the animal did 
not increase with the quantity of sugar consumed. The most 
work was accomplished when the nutritive ratio was only 1:22.3, 
and the horse receiving the largest amount of nitrogenous feed, 
accomplished the least. 
Difficulties to A great obstacle found in the use of sugar as a forage in 
contend with in Europe, up to the present time at least, has been the fiscal ques- 
tion, as both in Germany and France the home taxation of the 
feeding. i • i i • • ^ • 

product IS such that its expense is too great tor its general in- 
troduction for feeding. On the part of these Governments, 
there has always been a certain apprehension of the possibility 
of frauds arising from the withdrawal of the existing modes of 
taxation. It has been suggested that sugar be mixed with ver- 
mouth powder, also lamp soot and salt, so as to render its 
use for human consumption impossible. Gonnermann has 
lately proposed the denaturation of sugar by the means of peat. 
The German government in 1891 made some changes in the 
existing law and determined that the denaturated sugar should 
not be taxed provided it was made under the control of the 
state. 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 



317 



Feeding Standards.* 

A — Per Day aj^td One Thousand Pounds Live Weight, t 



Cattle fed. 



Oxen at rest in stall 

Wool sheep, coarser breeds 

Wool sheep, finer breeds ■ . • ■ 

Oxen moderately worked • 

Oxen heavily worked 

Horses lightly worked 

Horses moderately worked 

Horses heavily worked 

Milk cows, Wolff's standard 

Milk cows, Wisconsin standard 

Fattening oxen, preliminary period. . ■ 

Fattening oxen, main period 

Fattening oxen, finishing period . 

Fattening sheep, preliminary period • 

Fattening sheep, main period ■ 

Fattening swine, preliminary period- 

Fattening swine, main period ■ 

Fattening swine, finishing period . . •- 



Growing cattle : 

Average live weight 

Age. Months. per head. 

2—3 160 Ihs. 

3—6 300 lbs. 

B— 12 500 lbs. 

12—18 700 lbs. 

18-24 850 lbs. • , 

Growing sheep : 

5—6 56 lbs. 

6—8 67 lbs. 

8—11 75 lbs. 

11—15 82 lbs. 

15—20 85 lbs. 



s 

ft 




Digestible. 


p 


o '-a 


o 
H 

Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


17.5 


0.7 


83 


9.0 


20.0 


1.2 


10.8 


12.0 


22.5 


1.5 


12.0 


13.5 


24.0 


1.6 


12.0 


13.6 


26.0 


2.4 


14.3 


16.7 


20.0 


1.5 


10.4 


11.9 


21.0 


1.7 


11.8 


13.5 


23.0 


2.3 


14.3 


16.6 


24.0 


2.5 


134 


15.9 


24.5 


2.2 


14.9 


17.1 


27.0 


2.5 


16.1 


18.6 


26.0 


3.0 


16.4 


19.4 


25.0 


2.7 


16.2 


18.9 


26.0 


3.0 


16.3 


19.3 


25.0 


3.5 


15.8 


19.3 


36.0 


5.0 


27.5 


32.5 


31.0 


4.0 


24.0 


28.0 


23.5, 


2.7 


17.5 


20.2 


22.0 


4.0 


18.3 


22 3 


23.4 


3.2 


15.8 


19.0 


24.0 


2.6 


14.9 


17.4 


24.0 


2.0 


13.9 


15.9 


24.0 


1.6 


12.7 


14.3 


28.0 


3.2 


17.4 


20.6 


25.0 


2.7 


14.7 


17.4 


23.0 


2.1 


12.5 


14.6 


22.5 


1.7 


11.8 


13.5 


22.0 


1.4 


11.1 


12.6 



^ 



1:11.9 
1: 9.0 
1: 8.0 
1: 7.5 
1: 6.0 



6.9 
6.9 
6.2 
5.4 
6.8 
1: 6.4 
1: 5.5 
1: 6.0 
1: 5.4 
1: 4.5 
1: 5.5 
1: 6.0 
1: 6.5 



1: 4.6 

1: 4.9 

1: 6.0 

1: 7.0 

1: 8.0 



5.4 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 



* These feeding standards are taken mainly from German sources, but have been 
arranged by Armsby, '■ Circular of Information No. 1," Pennsylvania State College. 

t The fattening rations are calculated for one thousand pounds live weight at the be- 
ginning of the fattening. 



318 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

B — Pee Day and Head. 





(V 

a 

Q 
Lbs. 

42.0 
34.0 
31.5 
27.0 
21.0 

3.3 

7.0 
12.0 
16.8 
20.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 




Digestible. 




Cattle fed. 


.5 
'S 

2 

Lbs. 

7.5 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 
2.5 

0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 

0.18 
0.18 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0.38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 


1 

6 


3 

o 


o 
1 

3 


Growing fat pigs : 

Average live weight 
Age. Months. per head. 

2—3 50 lbs. 

3—5 100 lbs 

5—6 125 lbs. 

6—8 170 lbs 

8—12 250 lbs. 

Growing cattle : 

2—3 150 lbs 

3—6 300 lbs. 

6—12 500 lbs. 

12-18 700 lbs. 

18—24 850 lbs. 

Growing sheep : 

5—6 66 lbs. 

6—8 67 lbs. 

8—11 75 lbs. 

11—15 82 lbs. 

15—20 85 lbs 

Growing fat swine : 

2—3 50 lbs. 

3—5 100 lbs. 

5—6 125 lbs. 

6—8 170 lbs. 

8—12 250 lbs. 


Lbs. 

30.0 
25.0 
23.7 
20.4 
16.2 

2.8 
4.9 
7.5 
9.7 
11.1 

0.974 
0.981 
0.953 
0.975 
0.955 

1.50 
2.50 
2.96 
3.47 
4.05 


Lbs. 

37.5 
30.0 
28.0 
23.8 
18.7 

3.4 

5.9 

8.8 
11.1 
12.5 

1.154 
1.161 
1.113 
1.115 
1.075 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4.05 
4.67 


1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 

1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1.5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 



319 



Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals.* 

Digestible Nutrients in Stated Amounts oe the more Common 
Feeding Stuffs. 



Kind and amount of feed. 



SOILING FODDER. 

Fodder corn, 1 lb 



Total diy 
matter. 



5 lbs. 
15 •' . 
20 " . 
25 " . 
80 " . 
35 " . 
40 " . 



Peas and oats, 1 lb • 

5 lbs 

" " 15 " . 

« " 20 " . 

(( <i 2,5 " 

30 " . 

35 " . 

" 40 " . 



Peas and barley ....... 

Practically the same as 

peas and oats. 
Red clover, 1 lb ..... • 

5 lbs 

" " 15 " .... 
" 20 " .... 
" " 25 " 

" 30 " .... 

4 ( ( ( or u 

" '■• 40 " .... 



Alfalfa, 1 lb . 
5 lbs 

" 20 " 
" 25 " 



.20 
1.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 
.80 
2.40 
3.20 
4.00 
4.80 
5.60 
6.40 

.16 



.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.28 
1.40 
4.20 
5.60 
7.00 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 



Protein. 



.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 
.350 
.400 

.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 



.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
.725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.039 
.195 

.585 
.780 
.975 



Carbohy- 
drates -j- 
(fat X 
2.25). 



.125 
.625 
1.875 
2.500 
3.125 
3.750 
4.375 
5.000 

.076 
.380 
1.140 
1.520 
1.900 
2.280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 



.164 

.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.138 

.690 

2.070 

2.760 

3.450 



Total. 



.135 

.675 
2.025 
2.700 
3.375 
4.050 
4.725 
5.400 

.094 

.470 

1.410 

1.880 
2.350 
2.820 
3.290 
3.760 

.094 



.193 
.965 

2.895 
3.860 
4.825 
5.790 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 

.885 
2.655 
3.540 
4.425 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1:12.5 



1:4.2 



1:4.5 



1:5.6 



1:3.5 



* These well combined tables are taken from Bulletin 154, Cornell University Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, New York. The arrangement is such as to be a 
means of saving time and allows a comparison with standards. 



320 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Digestible Nutrients. — Continued, 



Kind and amount of feed. 



Alfalfa, 30 lbs 

'• 35 " 

" 40 " 

Hungarian grass, 1 lb. . 
5 lbs- 
" 15 " . 

" 20 " . 
" 25 " . 
" 30 " . 
" 35 " . 
" 40 " . 



Corn silage. 



1 lb.. 

5 lbs 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 
35 " 
40 " 
45 " 
50 " 



ROOTS AND TUBERS. 

Potatoes, 1 lb 

5 lbs 

15 " 

20 " •.•••• 
" 25 " ...... 



Beet, mangel, 1 lb. . 

5 lbs. 

15 " . 

" 20 " • 

25 " . 



Beet, sugar, 



1 lb 

5 lbs 

15 " 

20 " 



Total dry 
matter. 



8.40 

9.80 

11.20 

.29 
1.45 
4.35 
5.80 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

.21 
1.05 
3.15 
4.20 
5.25 
6.S0 
7.35 
8. JO 
9.45 
10.50 



.21 
1.05 
3.15 

4.20 
5.25 

.09 
.45 
1.35 
1.80 
2.25 
2.70 

.13 

.65 

1.95 

2.60 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 





Carbohy- 


Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 




2.25). 


1.170 


4.140 


1.365 


4.830 


1.560 


5.520 


.020 


.169 


.100 


.845 


.800 


2.535 


.400 


3.380 


.500 


4.225 


.600 


5.070 


.700 


5.915 


.800 


6.760 


.009 


.129 


.045 


.645 


.135 


1.935 


.180 


2.580 


.225 


3.225 


.270 


3.870 


.315 


4.515 


.360 


5.160 


.405 


5.805 


.450 


6.450 


.009 


.165 


.045 


.825 


.135 


2.475 


.180 


3.300 


.225 


4.125 


.011 


.056 


.055 


.280 


.165 


.840 


.220 


1.120 


.275 


1.400 


.330 


1.680 


.011 


.104 


.055 


.520 


.165 


1.560 


.220 


2.080 



Total. 



5.310 
6.195 

7.080 

.189 
.945 
2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5.670 
6.615 
7.560 

.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 
6.210 
6.900 



.174 

.870 
2.610 
3.480 
4.350 

.067 
.335 
1.005 
1.340 
1.675 
2.010 

.115 
.575 

1.725 
2.300 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 
DiGESTi BLE Nutrients, — Continued. 



321 



Kind and amount of feed. 



Beet, sugar, 25 lbs. 
'' 30 " 



Carrot, 1 lb 
5 lbs 
15 " 
20 " 
25 " 
30 " 



HAY AND STRAW. 



Timothy, 1 lb. . 
3 lbs. 
5 "■ 

7 " 



12 
15 

18 
20 



Mixed grasses and 
clover, 1 lb. 
3 lbs. 



5 




7 




8 




9 




" 12 




'• 15 




" 18 




" 20 




garian hay 



, lib. 
3 lbs 
5 " 

7 " 

8 " 

9 " 
12 '• 



Total dry 
matter. 



3.25 
3.90 

.11 
.55 
1.65 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 



2.61 

4.35 

6.09 

6.96 

7.83 

10.44 

13.05 

15.66 

17.40 



.87 

2.61 

4.35 

6.09 

6.96 

7.83 

10.44 

13.05 

15.66 

17.40 

.92 
2.76 
4.60 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 



Protein. 



2.75 
3.30 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.160 
.200 
.240 



.028 
.081 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 



.062 
.186 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.558 
.744 
.930 
1.116 
1.240 

.045 
.135 
.225 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.540 



Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 
2.25.) 



2.600 
3.120 

.082 
.410 
1.230 
1.640 
2.050 
2.460 



.465 
1.395 
2.325 
3.255 
3.720 
4.185 
5.580 
6.975 
8.370 
9.300 



.460 
1.381 
2.300 
3.220 
3.680 
4.140 
5.520 
6.900 
8.280 
9.200 

.546 
1.638 
2.730 
3.822 
4.368 
4.914 
6.552 



Total. 



2.875 
3.450 

.090 

.450 

1.350 

1.800 
2.250 
2.700 



.493 
1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
5.916 
7.395 
8.874 
9.860 



.522 
1.566 
2.610 
3.654 
4.176 
4.698 
6.264 
7.830 
9.396 
10.440 

.591 
1.773 

• 2.955 
4.137 
4.728 
5.319 
7.092 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1:10.3 



1:16.6 



1: 7.4 



1:12.1 



21 



322 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Digestible Nutrients. — Continued. 







Pounds of digestible 








nutrients. 






Total dry 








Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 

2.25.) 


Total. 




Red clover hay, 1 lb. 


.85 


.068 


.396 


.464 


1: 5.8 


" 3 lbs.... 


2.55 


.204 


1.188 


1.392 




" " 5 " .... 


4.25 


.340 


1.980 


2.320 




" '• 7 "... . 


5.95 


.476 


2.772 


3.248 




u '< 8 'i .... 


6.80 


.544 


3.168 


3.712 




" " 9 "... . 


7.65 


.612 


3.564 


4.176 




" 12 " .... 


10.20 


.816 


4.752 


5.568 




" " 15 "... . 


12.75 


1.020 


5.940 


6.960 




" " 18 " .... 


15.30 


1.224 


7.128 


8.352 




" 20 " .... 


17.00 


1.360 


7.920 


9.280 




Alfalfa hay, 1 lb 


.92 


.110 


.423 


.533 


1: 3.8 


" " 3 lbs 


2.76 


.330 


1.269 


1.599 




" " 5 " 


4.60 


.550 


2.115 


2.665 




" 7 " 


6.44 


.770 


2.961 


3.731 




" " 8 " 


7.36 


.880 


3.384 


4.264 




" 9 '' 


8.28 


.990 


3.807 


4.797 




" 12 " 


11.04 


1.320 


5.076 


6.396 




" 15 " 


13.80 


1.650 


6.345 


7.995 




" 18 " 


16.56 


1.980 


7.614 


9.594 




" " 20 " 


18.40 


2.200 


8.460 


10.660 


, 


Com fodder, 1 lb 


.58 


.025 


.373 


.398 


1:14.9 


5 lbs 


2.90 


.125 


1.865 


1.990 




" . 8 " 


4.64 


.200 


2.984 . 


3.184 




« 12 " 


6.96 


.300 


4.476 


4.776 




15 " 


8.70 


.375 


5.595 


5.970 




18 " 


10.44 


.450 


6.714 


7.164 




" 20 " 


11.60 


.500 


7.460 


7.960 




Com stover, 1 lb. 


.60 


.017 


.340 


.357 


1:19.9 


51bs 


3.00 


.085 


1.720 


1.785 




8 '' 


4.80 


.136 


2.720 


2.856 




12 '• 


7.20 


.204 


4.080 


4.284 




15 " ....... 


9.00 


.255 


5.160 


5.355 




" 18 " 


10.80 


.306 


6.120 


6.426 




20 " 


12.00 


.340 


6.880 


7.140 




Pea-vine straw, 1 lb. 


.86 


.043 


.341 


.384 


1: 7.9 


8 lbs.... 


2.-58 


.129 


1.023 


1.152 




« " 5 " .... 


4. .30 


.215 


1.705 


1.920 




8 " .... 


6.88 


.344 


2.728 


3.072 




" 12 " .... 


10.32 


.516 


4.092 


4.608 




" 15 " .... 


12.90 


.645 


5.115 


5.760 





RATIONS FOE, FARM ANIMALS. 
Digestible Nutrients. —Continued. 



323 







Pounds of digestible 








nutrients. 








Total dry 








Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 
2.25.) 


Total. 




Wheat straw, 1 lb 


.90 


.004 


.372 


.376 


1:93. 


3 1bs ...•• 


2.70 


.012 


1.016 


1.128 




" 5 '^ 


4.50 


.020 


1.860 


1.880 




" 8 " 


7.20 


.032 


2.976 


3.008 




" 12 " 


10.80 


.04» 


4.064 


4.512 




15 " 


13.50 


.060 


5.580 


5.640 




Oat straw, 1 lb 


.91 


.012 


.404 


.416 


1:33.6 


" 3 lbs 


2.73 


.036 


1.212 


1.248 




" 5 '' 


4.55 


.060 


2.020 


2.080 




" 8 " 


7.28 


.096 


8.232 


3.828 




" 12 " 


10.92 


.144 


4.848 


4.992 




15 " 


18.65 


.180 


6.060 


6.240 




GRAIN. 












Corn (av.) 1 lb 


.89 


.079 


.764 


.848 


1:9.7 


2 lbs 


1.78 


.158 


1.528 


1.686 




" 8 '' 


2.67 


.237 


2.292 


2.529 




4 " 


3.56 


.316 


3.056 


3.372 




5 " 


4.45 


.395 


3.820 


4.215 




" 6 " 


5.34 


.474 


4.584 


5.058 




" 7 " 


6.23 


.553 


5.848 


5.901 




" 8 " 


7.12 


.632 


6.112 


6.744 




9 " 


8.01 


.711 


6.876 


7.587 




Wheat, lib • 


.90 


.102 


.730 


.832 


1:7.2 


2 lbs 


1.80 


.204 


1.460 


1.664 




'< Q '^ 


2.70 
8.60 
4.50 
5.40 

88 


.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

099 


2.190 
2.920 
8.650 
4.380 

.700 


2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 




<( 4 :• 




u r 1.1. 




U ft " 




Ttva 1 lb 


1:7.1 


<■"'■ 9 ^h<i 


1 76 


.198 


1.400 


1.598 




tt q tt 


2.64 
3.52 


.297 
.896 


2.100 

2.800 


2.397 
3.196 




'< 4 " ,. 




tt K t' 


4.40 

5.28 

89 


.495 
.594 

087 


3.500 
4.200 

.692 


3.995 
4.794 

.779 




ct a tt 






1:7.9 


" 2 lbs 


1.78 


.174 


1.384 


1.558 




a Q " 


2.67 


.261 


2.076 


2.337 









324 FEEDING WIT*H SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, 

Digestible Nutrients. — Continued. 



Kind and amount of feed. 



Barley, 4 lbs- 
5 " . 

" 6 " . 

1 lb. . . 

2 lbs.. 

3 '' .. 



Oats, 



Total dry 
' matter. 



4 
5 
6 
7 
S 
9 

12 
15 



Buckwheat, 1 lb . 

'' 2 lbs. 

" 3 " . 

" 4 " . 

5 " . 

6 " . 

7 " . 

8 " . 

9 " . 



Peas, 



1 lb.. 

2 lbs. 

3 '• . 

4 " . 

5 " . 

6 " . 

7 " . 



MILL PRODUCTS. 

Corn and cob meal, 1 lb. 

2 lbs 

" " 3 " 

" " 5 " 



3.56 
4.45 
5.34 



.89 



1.74 
2.61 
3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
l.SO 
2.70 
3.60 
450 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 



.85 
1.70 
2.55 
3.40 

4.25 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 



Protein. 



.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 
.184 
.276 
.368 
.460 
.552 
.644 
.736 
.828 
1.104 
1.380 

.077 
.154 
.231 
.308 
.385 
.462 
.539 
.616 
.693 

.168 

.336 

.504 

.672 

.840 

1.008 

1.176 

1.344 

1.512 



.044 
.088 
.132 
.176 
.220 



Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fat X 

2.25). 



2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

.568 
1.136 
1.704 
2 272 
2.840 
3.408 
3.976 
4.544 
5.112 
6.816 
8.520 

.533 
1.066 
1.599 
2.132 
2.665 
3.198 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 

.534 
1.068 
1.602 
2.136 
2.670 
3.204 
3.738 
4.272 
4.806 



.665 
1.330 
1.995 
2.660 
S.325 



Total. 



3.116 
3.895 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.980 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 
1.220 
1.830 
2.440 
3.050 
3.660 
4.270 
4.880 
5.490 

.702 
1.404 
2.106 
2.808 
3.510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 



.709 
1.418 
2.127 
2.836 
3.545 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1: 6.2 



1: 3.2 



1:15.1 



RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 
Digestible Ntjteients. — Continued. 



325 







Pounds of digestible 






Total diy 


r 


utrients. 










1 




Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 
2.25). 


Total. 




Corn and cob meal, 6 lbs • • 


5.10 


.264 


3.990 


4.254 




u ii 7 " . . 


5.95 


.308 


4.655 


4.963 




" " 8 " .. 


6.80 


.352 


5.320 


5.672 




« " 9 " •• 


7.65 


.396 


5.985 


6.381 




" " 19 " .. 


10.20 


.528 


7.980 


8.508 




Wheat bran, lib 


.88 


.122 


.453 


.575 


1:3.7 


2 lbs 


1.76 


]244 


.906 


1.150 




" " 3 '' 


2.64 


.366 


1.359 


1.725 




<t u 4 " 


3.52 


.488 


1.812 


2.300 




5 " 


4.40 


.610 


2.265 


2.875 




" " 6 " 


5.28 


.732 


2.718 


3.450 




a t < y " 


6.16 


.854 


3.171 


4.025 




" " 8 '- 


7.04 


.976 


3:624 


4.600 




" " 9 " 


7.92 


1.098 


4.077 


5.175 




Wheat middlings, 1 lb • • • • 


.88 


.128 


.607 


.735 


1:4.7 


21bs... 


1.76 


.256 


1.214 


1.470 




" '' 3 " ••• 


2.64 


.384 


1.821 


2.205 




" " 4 " . .. 


3.52 


.512 


2.428 


2.940 




" " 5 ^' .•• 


4.40 


.640 


3.035 


3.675 




" " 6 " ... 


5.28 


.768 


3.642 


4.410 




" " 7 " . . . 


6.16 


.896 


4.249 


5.145 




'< " 8 " ••• 


7.04 


1.024 


4.856 


5.880 




" 9 " •- 


7.92 


1.152 


5.463 


6.615 




Dark feeding flour, 1 lb • • 


.90 


.135 


.658 


.793 


1:4.9 


" " 2 lbs.. 


1.80 


.270 


1.316 


1.586 




" " 3 " .. 


2.70 


.405 


1.974 


2.379 




" " 4 " .. 


3.60 


.540 


2.632 


3.172 




" " 5 " .. 


4.50 


.675 


3.290 


3.965 




" " 6 " •■ 


5.40 


.810 


S.948 


4.758 




u " 7 " . . 


6.30 


.945 


4.606 


5.551 




" " 8 " .. 


7.20 


1.080 


5.264 


6.344 




" " 9 " . . 


8.10 


1.215 


5.922 


7.137 




Low grade flour, 1 lb 


.88 


.082 


.647 


.729 


1:7.9 


" 2 lbs.... 


1.76 


.164 


1.294 


1.458 




(( tt 4i 3 '• , . . . 


2.64 


.246 


1.941 


2.187 




" " " 4 "... . 


3.52 


.328 


2.588 


2.916 




" " " .5 "... . 


4.40 


.410 


3.235 


3.645 




" " " 6 "... . 


5.28 


.492 


3.882 


4.374 





326 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Digestible Nutrients. — Continued. 







Pounds of digestible 








] 


[lutrieuts. 








Total dry 








Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 

2.25). 


Total. 




Low grade flour, 7 lbs 


6.16 


.574 


4.529 


5.103 




" " 8 " .... 


7.04 


.656 


5.176 


5.832 




(< u 9 "... . 


7.92 


.738 


5.823 


6.561 




Bye bran, 1 lb 


.88 


.115 


.548 


.663 


1:4.8 


' 


2 lbs. 




1.76 


.230 


1.096 


1.326 






3 " 




2.64 


.345 


1.644 


1.989 






4 " 




3.52 


.460 


2.192 


2.652 




' 


5 " 




4.40 


.575 


2.740 


3.315 




' 


6 " 




5.28 


.690 


3.288 


3.978 




' 


7 " 




6.16 


.805 


3.836 


4.641 




' 


8 " 




7.04 


.920 


4.384 


5.304 




" 9 " 




7.92 


1.035 


4.952 


5.967 




Buckwheat bran, 1 lb 


.90 


.074 


.347 


.421 


1:4.7 




' " 2 lbs..... 


1.80 


.148 


.694 


.842 






" 3 " .... 


2 70 


.222 


1.041 


1.263 






" 4 " .... 


3.60 


.296 


1.388 


1.684 






" 5 " .... 


4.50 


.370 


1.735 


2.105 






" 6 " .... 


5.40 


.444 


2.082 


2.526 






' " 7 " 


6.30 


,518 


2.429 


2.847 






" 8 " .... 


7.20 


.592 


2 776 


3.368 




" "9 " 


8.10 


.666 


3.123 


3.789 




Buckwheat middlings, 1 lb. 


.87 


.220 


.456 


.676 


1:2.1 


2 lbs. 


1.74 


.440 


.912 


1.352 




3 u 


2.61 


.660 


1.368 


2.028 




4 " 


3.48 


.880 


1.824 


2.704 




5 " 


4.35 


1.100 


2.280 


3.380 




6 " 


5.22 


1.320 


2.736 


4.056 




7 " 


6.09 


1.540 


3.192 


4.732 




8 " 


6.96 


1.760 


3.648 


5.408 




9 " 


7.83 


1.980 


4.104 


6.084 




BY-PRODUCTS. 












Malt sprouts, 1 lb 


.90 


.186 


.409 


.595 


1:2.2 


2 lbs 


1.80 


.372 


.818 


1.190 




" 3 " 


2.70 


.558 


1.227 


1.785 




a 4 " 


3.60 


.744 


1.636 


2.380 




" .5 " ".... 


4.50 


.930 


2.045 


2.975 






6 


li 


5.40 


1.116 


2.454 


3.570 





RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 
Digestible Nuteients. — Continued. 



327 



Kind and amount of feed. 



Malt Sprouts, 7 lbs 

8 " 

" 9 " 

Brewer's grains, wet, lib. 
" 2 lbs. 
" " 3 " 

II it A II 

(( l( c u 

" " 6 " 

u u g u 

" 9 " 

" 12 " 
" 15 " 

Brewer' s grains, dry, 1 lb. 
" 2 lbs. 
" 3 " 

K (.i ^ i< 

" " 5 " 

II (I y a 



Gluten feed. 



1 lb. 

2 lbs 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



Gluten meal, 



lib . 

2 lbs. 

3 " . 

4 ". 

5 ". 

6 ". 



Total dry 
matter. 



6.30 

7.20 
8.10 

.24 

.48 
.72 
.96 
1.20 
1.44 
1.68 
1.92 
2.16 
2.64 
2.88 
3.60 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
8.28 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 
6.44 
7.36 

.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
5.52 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 



Protein. 



1.302 
1.488 
1.674 

.039 
.078 
.117 
.156 
.195 
.234 
.273 
.312 
.351 
.429 
.468 
.585 

.157 

.314 

.471 

.628 

.785 

.942 

1.099 

1.256 

1.413 

.194 

.388 

.582 

.776 

.970 

1.164 

1.358 

1.552 

.258 

.516 

.774 

1.032 

1.290 

1.548 



Carbohy- 
drates -J- 
(fat X 

2.25). 



2.863 
3.272 
3.681 

.125 

.250 

.375 

.500 

.625 

.750 

.875 

1.000 

1.125 

1.375 

1.500 

1.875 

.478 
.956 
1.434 
1.912 
2.390 
2.868 
3.346 
3 824 
4.302 

.633 
1.266 
1.899 
2.532 
3.165 
3.798 
4.431 
5.064 

.656 
1.312 
1.968 
2.624 
3.280 
3.936 



Total. 



4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 

.328 

.492 

.656 

.820 

.984 

1.148 

1.312 

1.476 

1.804 

1.968 

2.460 

.635 
1.270 
1.905 
2.540 
3.175 
3.810 
4.445 
5.080 
5.715 

.827 
1.654 
2.481 
3.308 
4.135 
4.962 
5.789 
6.616 

.914 

1.828 
2.742 
3.656 
4.570 
5.484 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1:3.2 



1:3 



1:3.3 



1:2.5 



328 FEEDING WITH SUGAK BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Digestible Nutkients. — Continued. 







Pounds of digestible 






Total dry 


nutrients. 














Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fatX 
2.24). 


Total. 




Gluten meal, 7 lbs 


6.44 


1.806 


4 592 


6.398 




8 " 


7.36 


2.064 


5.248 


7.312 




Hominy chop, 1 lb 


.89 


.075 


.705 


.780 


1:9.4 


21bs 


1.78 


.150 


1.410 


1.560 




3 '• 


2.67 


.225 


2.115 


2.340 




4 " 


3.56 


.300 


2.820 


3.120 




" 5 " 


4.45 


.375 


3.525 


3.900 




6 " 


5.34 


.450 


4.230 


4.680 




u yet 


6.23 


.525 


4.935 


5.460 




8 " 


7.12 


.600 


5.640 


6.240 




9 " 


8.01 


.675 


6 345 


7.020 




Linseed meal 












(old process), 1 lb. 


.91 


.293 


.485 


.778 


1:1.7 


'' " 2 lbs 


1.82 


.586 


.970 


1.556 




" " 3 " 


2.73 


.879 


1.455 


2.334 




" u 4 " 


3.64 


1.172 


1.940 


3.112 




" " 5 " 


4.55 


1.465 


2.425 


3 890 




" " 6 " 


5.46 


1.758 


2 910 


4.668 




t < u y a 


6 37 


2.051 


3.395 


5.446 




Linseed meal 












(new process) ,11b. 


.90 


.282 


.464 


.746 


1:1.6 


'' " 2 lbs 


1.80 


.564 


.928 


1.492 




" " 3 " 


2.70 


.846 


1.392 


2.238 




U i. ^ u 


3.60 


1.128 


1.856 


2 984 




" " 5 " 


4.50 


1.410 


2.320 


3.730 




" " 6 " 


5.40 


1.692 


2.784 


4.476 




u a 7 " 


6.30 


1.974 


3.248 


5.232 




Cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. . . . 


.92 


.372 


.444 


.816 


1:1.2 


" " 2 lbs... 


1.84 


.744 


.888 


1.632 




" " 3 " ... 


2.76 


1.116 


1.332 


2.448 




" " 4 '•' . .. 


3.68 


1.488 


1.776 


3 264 




" " 5 " ..! 


4.60 


1.860 


2.220 


4.080 




" " 6 " ... 


5.52 


2.232 


2.664 


4.896 




" " 7 " . . . 


6.44 


2.604 


3.008 


5.712 




« " 8 " ... 


7.36 


2.976 


3.552 


6 528 




'' " 9 " ... 


8.28 


3.348 


3.996 


7.344 




MISCELLANEOUS. 












Cabbage, 1 lb. 


.15 

.75 


.018 
.090 


.091 
.455 


.109 
.545 


1:5.1 


" 5 lbs 









RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

Digestible Nutrients. — Continued. 



329 



Kind and amount of feed. 



Cabbage, 15 lbs 

" 20 " 

30"....!!." 

35 " 

" 40 " 

Sugar beet leaves, 1 lb. . 

5 lbs. 

" 15 " . 

" " 20 " . 

.c 25 " . 

" 30 " . 

" " 35 " . 

" " 40 " . 



Sugar beet pulp, 1 lb. . 

'• 5 lbs. 

" 15 " . 

u u 20 " . 

" 25 " . 

" 30 '' . 

" 35 " . 

" " 40 " . 



Beet molasses, 1 lb. - 

2 lbs. 

3 " . 

4 " . 

5 " . 

6 " . 

7 " . 



Apple pomace, 1 lb. • 

5 lbs. 

" 15 " . 

u li 20 " . 

" '< 25 " . 

" " 30 " . 



Total dry 
matter. 



2.25 
3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5 25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2.00 
5.20 
3.00 
3.50 
4 00 

.79 
1.58 
2.37 
3.16 
3 95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.233 
1.165 
3.495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 



Pounds of digestible 
nutrients. 



Protein. 



.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.840 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
.180 
.210 
.240 

.091 

.182 
.273 
.364 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 



Carbohy- 
drates + 
(fatX 
2.25). 



1.365 
1.820 
2.275 
2.730 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 
.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2 040 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2 190 
2 555 
2.920 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4 165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3,280 
4.100 
4.920 



Total. 



1.635 

2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.068 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1 .580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.765 
3.160 

.696 
1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
3.430 
4 116 
4.802 
5.488 
6.174 

.175 
.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1:3 



1:12 



1:6.5 



1:14.9 



130 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



Digestible Nxjteients.— CowcZwcZed. 







Pounds of digestible 








nutrients. 








Total dry 








Nutritive 


Kind and amount of feed. 


matter. 




Carbohy- 




ratio. 






Protein. 


drates + 
(fat X 

2.25). 


Total. 




Apple pomace, 35 lbs 


8.155 


.385 


5.740 


6.125 




it a 40 " 


9.320 


.440 


6.560 


7.000 




Skim milk gravity, 1 lb. • . 


.096 


.031 


.065 


.096 


1:2.1 


5 lbs.. 


.480 


.155 


.325 


.480 




" " 8 " .. 


.768 


.248 


.520 


.768 




" " 12 " •• 


1.152 


.372 


.780 


1.152 




" " ] 5 " . • 


1.440 


.465 


.975 


1.440 




" " 20 " .. 


1.920 


.620 


1.300 


1.920 




" " 25 " .. 


2.400 


.775 


^ 1.625 


2.400 




'.' " 30 " .. 


2.880 


.930 


1.950 


2.880 




Skim milk centrifugal, 1 lb . 


.094 


.029 


.059 


.088 


1:2 


" 5 lbs. 


.470 


.145 


.295 


.440 




(< Cl g u 


.752 


.232 


.472 


.704 




u u 22 " '. 


1.128 


.348 


.708 


1.056 




15 ". 


1.410 


.435 


.885 


1.320 




20 ". 


1.880 


.580 


1.180 


1.760 




" " 25 " . 


2.350 


.725 


1.475 


2.200 




w « 30 u_ 


2.820 


.870 


1.770 


2.620 




Buttermilk, lib 


.10 


.039 


.065 


.104 


1:1.7 


" 6 lbs 


.50 


.195 


.325 


.520 




8 " 


.80 


.312 


.520 


.832 




12 " 


1.20 


.468 


.780 


1.248 




" 15 " 


1.50 


.585 


.975 


1.560 




20 " 


2.00 


.780 


1.300 


2.080 




" 25 " 


2.50 


.975 


1.625 


2.600 




30 " 


3.00 


1.170 


1.950 


3.120 





PART SIXTH. 



Definitions and Teclinical Considerations. 

AlTjuminoids. The albuminoids belong to the so-called protein classi- 
fication, which exists in many forms, such as gluten, vegetable albumins, etc. 
As theii' name indicates, they resemble in composition the white of egg. 
When in a soluble form, they may be rendered insoluble through the action 
of heat. There follows a coagulation. Albuminoids are made up of carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, with a small amount of sulphur. There is a 
great variation of these elements in the different forms in which the albumin- 
oids are found. In the case of nitrogen, it is supjjosed that 16 percent, is 
about an average, hence it is customary to multiply the percentage of nitrogen 
found by analysis by 6.25; this is only an approximation, but is accepted. 
The word albuminoids is another term for complex protein. As these consti- 
tute the muscles, etc., they play a most important role in animal feeding, and 
while they can in a measure take the place of the non-nitrogenous, the latter 
cannot play a similar role. The greater their percentage in a fodder, the 
greater will be the feeding value of the product. At present, it is generally 
accepted that fat may be formed from albuminoids. Experiments show, that 
the greater the increase of weight in animal feeding, the greater must be the 
quantity of albuminoids furnished. 

Acidity. The property of being acid, an excess of acid. 

Allnimin. The white of an egg is composed largely of albumin; it is a 
proteid and is the main constituent of the body; there are several varieties, 
their names depending upon their source, such as serum albumin, vegetable 
albumin. 

Alkali, A substance caustic to the taste and which will neutralize acids 
and blue litmus paper. 

Alkaline. Having the properties of or relating to alkali. 

Alimentary canal. This taken as a whole includes the stomach, 
intestines, etc., through which food passes during the process of assimilation. 

Alkaloids are vegetable principles having alkaline properties. They 
do not actively enter into the question of fodders, lupine, however, being an 
exception. 

Amids. Owing to their solubility, amids readily pass through the cells 
of plant tissues and thus furnish the nitrogenous substance of which they con- 
sist; they are oxidized just as are other nutrients. 

( 331 ) 



832 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

The determination of amids in fodders is rather complicated, and would 
take us beyond the general scope of this present writing. During the early 
histoiy of leeding animals, very little attention was given to amids, yet it was 
freely admitted that tliere was some substance in the nitrogenous part of foods 
that was not protein in the true sense of the term. The experiments of 
Schulizen and IS'eucki, etc., appear to show just what role the amides play 
during assimilation. The conclusion one can draw from the result of their in- 
vestigations is not entirely satisfactory; however, in the case of asparagin, the 
resulting gain was pronounced. 

Anliydrous means free from water. 

Anhydrous sulpliiii'ic acid means sulphuric acid free from water. 

Asli. If a fodder is burned until the entire organic matter has disap- 
peared, certain precautions are necessary in order that volatilization of the 
chlorids, etc., may be avoided. The substance or residue remaining is called 
asli; it is made up mainly of potash, soda, lime, iron, sulphuric, carbonic and 
phosphoric acids. In certain cases, however, it is found desirable when feed- 
ing young animals, to add wood ashes, precipitated chalk and phosphate of 
lime to the ration. The ash percentage varies very considerably; for example, 
in pasture grass it is 2.5 per cent., while red clover hay may contain 6.2 per 
cent. This latter percentage is misleading for various reasons. The ash of 
beets, beet residuum, etc., varies with the methods of cultivation of the roots 
and the modes of manufacture at the factory. 

As the ash of a fodder is made up of most of the ingredients of the animal's 
body, it has a very important role to play in feeding in general. Feeding 
stufis upon general principles all contain an ample supply of mineral sub- 
stances — there need be no apprehension of their quantity being deficient. In 
rational farming, when the fertilizers are judiciously used, the percentage of 
mineral salts fed to be found subsequently in the excrements is of more than 
usual importance. Upon general principles, it may be admitted that over SO 
per cent, of these salts are found m the solid and liquid excrements. There 
is excreted in the urine nearly the entire amount of sulphuric acid and chlorin 
contained in the fodder; while in the case of lime, 2 to 5 per cent, is found in 
the urine; with magnesia only 0.25 per cent, is thus thrown off, 

Asparagin is an alkaloid found in seeds of certain plants, also in aspar- 
agus, sugar-beets, etc. It is an amid of aspartic acid. 

Assimilation. The terms "assimilation" and ''digestion " are very 
much the same; the process consists in taking up from the feeds the nutrients 
that may be employed to make up for the wear and tear and form new tissue. 

Bacteria is synonymous with microbes; they may be in straight rods or 
twisted rods, etc., they may be either dependent upon free oxygen, or, as in 
plants, may appropriate the oxygen of the organic combinations and thus act 
as a putrefactive agent. 

Betain. This substance is a special form of amid; the product contains 
about 11 per cent, nitrogen; it disappears apparently during the second yeai-'s 
growth of the beet. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 333 

Bolus. The food before being swallowed by many animals is arranged 
by the tongue, etc., into a rounded ball, known as a bolus. 

Brewers' grains, on account of the percentage of asparagin they con- 
tain, give to milk a flavor very like that noticeable after eating asparagus. 

Calcic carbonate is another name for carbonate of lime. 

Calcic ptlOSpliate is anotlier name for lime phosphate. 

Calorie. A unit of heat, being the amount necessary to raise the tem- 
perature of one kilogram of water one degree Centigrade. (Or one pound of 
water 4° F.) 

Carbohydrates. These include first the so-called nitrogen-free ex- 
tracts, such as starch, sugar, gum, etc., second the woody portion of plants. 
The word carbohydrates indicates that these bodies contain, besides carbon, a 
certain amount of hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportions in which tliey com- 
bine in water. The first series are readily digested, the second very mucii less 
so. Carbohydrates play a very important role in cattle feeding; when fed they 
are not stored, but are either burned or converted into fat. As they serve the 
same purpose they are grouped with it, and hence it is customary to multiply 
the quantity of fat by 2.25, which is then added to the carbohydrates. When 
carbohydrates are fed alone, they do not appear to affect tlie protein consump- 
tion, consequently their action may be compared with fat as far as their influ- 
ence on protein is concerned; without food the protein waste is iust the same 
as it is with carbohydrates. 

Carbon is a non-metal and occurs in various forms, such as diamond, 
graphite, etc. 

Carbonates. Carbonic acid combines with alkalies to form carbonates. 

Carbonate of lime is a substance formed by the combination of lime 
with carbonic acid. 

Carbonatation is one of the operations in beet-sugar manufacture; it 
has for its object the liberating of the sugar from its combination with lime, 
by the use of carbonic acid, which forms a precipitate of carbonate of lime, 
subsequently separated by filtration. 

Carbonize. When organic substances are submitted to heat and the 
volatile substances are driven off, they are carbonized. 

Carbonic acid. When carbon is burned in the air, there is formed 
carbonic acid. 

Carnivox-OTlS. The flesh-eating animals are known as carnivorous. 

Casein is a substance contained in milk; it is not coagulated by boiling, 
and is separated by precipitation with acids and by rennet at 40° C. 

Cellnlar tissue is composed of rounded cells of plants; the tissue itself 
is an aggregate of cells which are governed by a law of growth. 

Cellulose. Cellulose is made up of 6 parts carbon, 10 parts hydrogen, 
and 5 parts oxygen, and has the formula CgHioOs, which makes up the cell 



334 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. 

tissue of plants in general. Linen that has been frequently washed and is old, 
is made up of almost pure cellulose. The digestibility of this product was for 
a long time refuted, but it is now proved that it undergoes a decided fermenta- 
tion in the paunch of ruminants. During this period, there is formed 33. 5 
carbonic acid, 5.7 protocarbide of hydrogen, 33.6 acetic acid, and 33.6 butyric 
acid. If one make allowance for the nourishing value of acetic and butyric 
acids, it may be concluded that cellulose has a decided nutritive value, and 
some say that 50 per cent, of the Aveight may be considered digestible. To 
determine the insoluble cellulose percentage in a fodder, it is customary in 
most laboratories to finely divide the product, and to subsequently boil with 
dilute acid and alkali, this to be thoroughly washed in alcohol and ether; 
there remains a certain percentage of albuminoids which must be deducted., 
and what remains is called crude fibre. (See Digestibility. ) 

CentigTade degrees are equal to 5.9 Fahrenheit degrees, to which 
are added 32° in converting a Centigrade into a Fahrenheit reading. 

Cereal wastes include bran, wheat middlings, etc. 

Clllorids. Hydrochloric acid combines with alkalies to form chlorids. 

Clilorophyl is the coloring substance contained in all green plants; 
through its agency carbohydrates are formed. 

Cliyle is a whitish fluid, accumulated during digestion, and which, when 
allowed to stand, separates and becomes a substance very like serum. 

ClOTers offer certain advantages over grasses and hay for they contain 
nearly twice as nmch protein as the latter; in other respects the composition 
is about the same. There are many varieties of clover, the most desirable 
being the white clover. 

Coagulate. To coagulate means the formation of a coagulum or clot. 

Coeflacient of digestibility and niitritive relations. 
Upon general principles it may be admitted that the value of a ration depends 
upon its digestibility. 

Wolff, many years since, demonstrated that there is a relation between the 
amount digested and the actual composition of a fodder. Whatever be the 
formulae given, it must not be forgotten that they are only approximate and 
are to be accepted only as guides in the feeding. There are too many factors 
in the pi-oblem of cattle-feeding to permit a combination that would apply to 
all cases that might occur. If the more salient ones only are considered, 
these are more than counterbalanced by those whose influence upon the 
general laws relating to assimilation there can be no possible means of 
determining. The problem as it stands consequently consists of a practical 
and theoretical side, the one based upon observation of the chemist in his 
laboratory, the other being the results obtained by the breeder on the farm. 
The farmer has his capital at stake and he is the one to suffer when mistakes 
are made. Consequently, there can be no doubt that practical observation 
upon cattle-feeding, which may differ with each individual, has a money value 
very much greater than is possible to obtain by adhering to any theoretical 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDEKATIONS. ooO 

consideration; however, as far as possible, it is desirable to have a general 
knowledge of both sides of the question which will permit new fields of investi- 
gation with fodders of which a farmer has had no previous experience. 
The early formula generally adopted was : 

p -p. Protein + Fat + Nitrogen Free Extract 

Protein + Fibre + Fat -f Nitrogen Free Extract 

Protein + Fat + Nitrogen Free Extract 

Organic Substances. 

But the organic substances are represented by dry matter less ash. Conse- 
quently the formula reads: 

p J. _ Total Protein + Fat -f Nitrogen Free Extract. 
Dry matter — Ash. 

If applied to meadow hay for example : 

C D := ^'^ "^ ^'^ ~^ 38.3 __ g9 
85.7 — 6.U2 

Calculations based upon this formula give the following coefficients: hay 
= 0.60; straw = 0.40; husks =0.50. 

If it is desirable to replace a portion of hay by straw in a ration, owing to 
special circumstances of the market, the amount of straw to be used may be 
estimated by considering the coefficient of digestibility of the two fodders, hay 
(0.60) — straw (0.40) = 0.20, which means that '20 per cent, more straw must 
be used to get the same effect as would have been realized with i less hay. 
This is an excellent practical example of how a farmer can meet existing con- 
ditions. The nutritive relations of a ration should also be considered as it 
has an important influence; while this may be considered as a relative diges- 
tibility, the absolute digestibility depends upon various causes. Between 
these terms there exist frequent confusions. Two fodders, oats and hay for 
example, may have the same absolute digestibility, but not the same value for 
feeding unless their relative digestibility is also the same. The fodder that 
yields the greatest amount of nutritive elements that are digested, has the 
highest value. In such cases, it must not be forgotten that feeding stuffs when 
alone, act very diffisrently than when combined, and may produce a collective 
depressing effect. The digestibility of the protein of a fodder may decrease by 
the addition of starch, for example, and remain constant by a further addition 
of some fatty substance. Hence there has been proposed a special factor known 
as adipoprotein relation, which is a proportion between the protein and fatty 
substances. Attention should be called to the fact that the best results are ob- 
tained when the proportion is 1 to 2. (In hay it is J to 7.) When there is 
too much fat or too little, the effects are equally bad. When the nutritive 
relation (relative digestibility; is i, the best combination then is 1 protein, 
0.5 fatty substance and 4.5 carbohydrate. Some authorities maintain that the 
proportion between fat and protein should never be lower than i. 

In all these formulse, too little account is taken of the proportion between 



3^G FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

total dry matter and protein— in reality it has a most important effect upon 
digestibility; furthermore it permits one to form a very satisfactory idea of the 
degree of concentration of a fodder. It is frequently maintained that the pro- 
portion should be j^ per UO lbs. live weight, in other words 10 dry matter 
for 1 protein. 

Coloring and volatile substances. Fodders frequently con- 
tain certain coloring substances, but as these have very little nutritive value, 
they are seldom taken into account when estimating the value of a fodder; 
the same may be said of the volatile oils. However these, upon general prin- 
ciples, may be considered objectionable, as they transmit to milk an unpleas- 
ant taste and odor. 

Concentrates include grains and mill products. It is a great mistake 
to use too much concentrated fodder, as there would be danger of bringing 
about an abnormal fattening. A poor fodder would be the other extreme. 
( See Digestibility. ) 

Constituents of ttie animal's body. The composition of an 
animal body may be considered either from an organic or a chemical stand- 
point, the microscope i-evealing the elementary forms, while the chemical 
substances may be determined by suitable tests. 

The elementary form is the primordial cell; it divides itself into two parts, 
each of which again becomes two; this segmentation goes on, thus forming 
the various tissues of which the body of the animal consists. Whatever 
may be the tissue, it originated from a single cell. In the blood the globules 
retain their original shape, but in most cases they make up the fibrous tis- 
sue. After a tissue has reached its ultimate form, it must be constantly re- 
newed and the burned portions eliminated. The combinations of these cells 
are very numerous, and the tissues which they form constitute the various 
organs of the body ; among which we have the bony, cartilaginous, con- 
junctive, muscular, mucous and nervous tissues. The bony tissue forms the 
skeleton upon Avliich rest the other tissues and organs of the body. The car- 
tilaginous tissues have a certain elasticity. In them are formed the phos- 
phates, carbonates of lime, etc. The stronger bone is not compact, as many 
suppose, but on the contrary is made up oi spaces more or less open, the outer 
portion being the hardest. The conjunctive tissue is spread over the entire 
body. Its nature varies with work to be done, covering muscles, or constitut- 
ing a tissue in which is deposited the fat. When it forms the ligaments of 
bones it assumes an undulated shape. 

The fatty tissue is made up of cells more or less round and filled with fat. 
Every new formation of fat means an increased number of cells. W^hen fat- 
tening is in view it is not alone necessary to feed so as to make fat, but the 
fodder should also contain those elements which help to build up the cells. 

The muscular tissue makes the meat of the body; it is by these that the body 
receives its power of motion. They are attached to the bones by tendons, the 
thickness of which varies with the work to be done. It is not necessary to 
enter into various considerations showing of what muscles consist. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDEEATIONS. 337 

The nervous tissue is the center of all the sensations of the body. All 
organs receive from the nerves the impulse upon which they enter into activity, 
and all voluntary and involuntary movements of the body are regulated by the 
nervous tissues. Every perception of the senses is through the nervous tissue. 

Mucous tissue covers all the empty spaces in the interior of the body, the 
digestive canal, the respiratory organs, etc. Its importance is very great dur- 
ing every stage of the animal's development. A reasonable knowledge of this 
question should be possessed by every farmer. 

The body of an animal consists mainly of nitrogenous elements, besides 
which there is distributed through the tissues a certain amount of fat and non- 
nitrogenous substances. After these are burned, there remains a residuum 
which represents the mineral elements. It is interesting to pass these rapidly 
in review, remembering that the starting-point in cattle-feeding is to furnish 
in the fodder those elements of which the body consists, so as to renew the 
constant waste and build up new tissues. Experiments have long since demon- 
strated that plants offer advantages not found elsewhere for this purpose. 
Other experiments in digestion siiow what variety of plant gives the best result 
in the physical laboratory of each kind of animal under consideration. 

(a) NiTEOGEXors Elejiexts. 

The main characteristics of plants is their high percentage of carbon; in 
animals, on the other hand, the salient charactei-istic is the nitrogen. "With 
young and thin animals, nitrogenous substances constitute the principal part 
of the dry matter of the body. The most important group of nitrogenous ele- 
ments is the albuminoids or protein substances; these are met with under most 
varied circumstances; they contain about 16 j)er cent, nitrogen, 7 per cent, 
hydrogen, 5-t per cent, carbon, 22 per cent, oxygen, and 1 per cent, sulphur. 
They form the principal constituents of blood, eggs, muscular and nervous 
tissue. When dried in the soluble form, they are white or yellowish, without 
smell and soluble in water; in the insoluble form they are insoluble in water. 
By coagulation the soluble portions may be made insoluble. 

The most important of the group is albumen, found in all the liquids of the 
animal's organism, more especially in the chyle and serum, the colorless por- 
tions of the blood, and in the juice of meat or muscles. 

Fibrin is next in importance in the nitrogenous group; it is found either 
liquid, dissolved in the blood, or in a solid state in the muscles. 

All these protein substances may undergo numerous transformations. It is 
from them that all the other nitric elements originate, of which the body con- 
sists, and in particular the gelatigenous substances. These are next in im- 
portance to the albuminoids; they constitute the nitrogenous organic substances 
of bones, cartilages, the greater portion of the tendons and ligaments. By 
prolonged boiling these gelatigenous substances are converted into glue; they 
contain less carbon than the albuminoids, and are entirely free from an organic 
combination of sulphur — when it exists its percentage is generally less than in 
the albuminoids ; to them belongs a special group known as horny matter ; 
they are found in the outer portions of the body, a thin laver upon the skin, 

22 



338 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

or under different aspects, such as hair, wool, horns, claws, etc. Their com- 
position is about as follows : 51 per cent, carbon, 7 per cent, hydrogen, 16 to 
17 per cent, nitrogen, 20 to 22 per cent, oxygen. Consequently, it is inter- 
esting to note that the average composition of different parts of the body is 
very like that of pure albumin. Several important experiments show that the 
nitrogenous organic matters of the body, other than the albuminoids and horny 
matter, have but little influence on the percentage of nitrogen of which the 
body consists. 

(6) NON-NITEOGENOUS ELEMENT". 

These include the carbohydrates and mineral constituents. 

Lactic acid is one of the non-nitrogenous organic substances which help to 
make up the body; it is found in the blood and in the muscular tissues. 

It is one of the elements of sugar of milk found in the gastric juice, and also 
in the small and large intestines. 

Sugar is also found in the blood, in a maximum quantity of O.I per cent., 
in the vein leading from the liver in the direction of the heart; on the other 
hand the liver contains a substance known as glycogen, which is very like 
sugar, found also in very limited quantities in the muscles of the body; with 
it is also another substance called inosite, possessing properties and a com- 
position very like sugar. Many substances found in the bile and other 
secretions of the body are also non-nitrogenous, but their percentage is so 
small that it is not even necessary to mention them. 

Fat is to be found in variable quantities in blood (O.I to 0.3 per cent. ), also 
in milk, the nerve tissue, etc., in all solid or liquid parts of the body, in 
special cells under the skin, between the muscles and in the muscular fibres. 
It is either in solid 'state like tallow, or in a, liquid condition not unlike oil. 
Its appearance, color and taste vary very considerably with the animal from 
which it is taken. 

The tliin membrane forming walls of cells containing fat represents about 
0.8 per cent, of total weight of tissue. All fats contain at least 75 per cent, 
carbon, II per cent, hydrogen and 12 per cent, oxygen, and are consequently 
excellent heat formers. When not consumed, they are deposited in their 
special cells, where they remain and increase in quantity unless called upon to 
supply an insufficiency in the fodder used ; animals dying from hunger 
consume almost all the fat of their bodies. Fats take a most important part 
in assisting the assimilation of protein substances and in the formation and 
development of animal cells. An interesting fact is that fat found in plants is 
almost identical with fat found in the body of an animal. Before being de- 
posited, it undergoes certain transformations and may be in greater volume 
than the fodder used originally contained. The quantity of fat deposited may 
reach 40 per cent, of the total weight of cattle, or several times more than all 
the dry nitrogenous substances representing the animal's weight at the time of 
killing. An animal in perfect condition has rounded proportions due to fat, 
which in no manner interferes with the general functions of the body; on the 
other hand when submitted to a process of systematic fattening, the functions 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 339 

of the body are interfered with, and disease may declare itself if continued too 
long. 

Every part of the body contains water in quantities that appear to vary with 
the age of the animal. Upon general principles it may be admitted that 50 
per cent, of the total live weight is water. In newly born animals, this per- 
centage may reach 80 to 85. 

While in certain cases bones contain 70 per cent, water, when they attain 
their full development this percentage is only 20. 

The water of the body may be considered as a general solvent; it determines 
the absorption of the nutritive liquors of the intestines, renders possible a con- 
tact between various substances and the organs of the body, and in the daily 
excretions considerable water is found which has helped to carry off the gen- 
eral wastes of the body. 

Of the mineral substances mention may be made of phosphoric acid and lime, 
which exist in almost equal proportions, and are about equal to | of the total 
weight of the ash residuum after incineration of the body; the rest consists 
mainly of potassa, soda, magnesia, iron, chlorin, sulphuric acid, carbonic 
acid, and a small percentage of silica. 

Bones ai'e made up mainly of mineral substances. For full-grown animals 
these represent f of their total weight, this percentage varying with the outer, 
middle and inside parts of the bony frame. About 87 per cent, of the ash 
from bones is phosphate of lime, the remainder being mainly carbonate of 
lime. The dried part of bones without fat contains 27 per cent, phosphoric 
acid, 38 per cent, lime, and 3 to 4 per cent, carbonic acid. 

Magnesia plays only a very secondary role in the constitution and the main- 
tenance of animals; its exact functions are almost unknown. Iron is found 
in quantities representing 0.013 to 0.042 per cent, of the live weight of a full- 
grown animal in a good condition; its most important functions are in the 
blood; it is the essential element upon which the coloring of blood depends; 
its existence is essential to the good health of aiiimals, as shown in the experi- 
ments of Hosslin. When not in sufficient quantity, the animals were tired 
and had a very active circulation, owing to the absence of hsemoglobin. The 
arterial blood contains oxyhtemoglobin, in which is found 0.45 per cent. iron. 

The blood always contains alkalies and a certain percentage of sodic chlorid, 
so important for the regular working of the functions of nutrition and respira- 
tion. They must be constantly renewed so as to assure the proper workings 
of all organs connected with assimilation. 

The functions of potassa appear to be confined to the formation of tissue 
cells. The weight of potassa and soda combined th^t should be fed per diem, 
is 300 grs. per 100 k. live weight. These alkalies are constantly eliminated 
through the urine-, and the fodders must not be deficient in them. In fact, 
numerous experiments in feeding without mineral salts soon resulted in death, 
notwithstanding the fact that the body appeared to be in a perfectly healthy 
condition. The blood and brain lost 10 percent, of their water under this 
regimen, and this was followed by a general decrease in phosphoric acid, etc. 
The fodders for young animals should never be deficient in lime and phos- 



840 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

phoric acid, otherwise tlic bones are weak, and the muscles become flabby. 
For lambs 2 gr., young swine 3 gr. , calves 15 to 18 gr. of lime per diem, and 
about same quantity of phosphoric acid may be considered good proportions, 
for the maintenance of the bony tissue. These remarks apply mainly to very 
young animals; in older cattle, on the other hand, if these salts are not given 
in suitable amounts, death carries oflf the animal before the bones have had 
time to be affected, so that rickets or osteoma must be due to some other 
cause. Upon general principles it may be said that one need have no appre- 
hension as regards the percentage of salts, as all well-combined rations contain 
these, and they are, in most cases, in abundance. Sodic chlorid and lime 
are the most important to be considered. In feeding beet pulp or beets, the 
phosphoric acid is generally in greater quantities than lime, and an addition 
of the latter may be found desirable. 

Corn and cob meal is becoming of late very popular in cattle feed- 
ing, the corn and the cob being crushed to form the meal. There is a con- 
siderable amount of this feed sold that is not economical, for the reason that 
the crushing has not been pushed sutficiently far and there follows consider- 
able waste when fed. Certain advantages, from a digestive standpoint, are 
claimed for this combination. 

Corpnscles, as they exist in the blood, are flat discs. They may be 
red, white or colorless. 

Cotton seed meal. This is a residuum from the manufacture of 
cotton seed oil, and for over twenty years it has been in very general use in 
cattle-feeding. Its advantages depend largely upon its protein constituents 
and the reasonable percentage of fat entering into its composition offers an 
additional argument in favor of its use. It does not contain carbohydrates 
(starch, etc.). Under all circumstances when fed, it should be combined with 
coarser fodders, containmg a heavy percentage of carbohydrates. Its main 
advantage is its cheapness, and in this respect it offers exceptional advantages 
for making up a ration deficient in protein. When used with certain discre- 
tion it will increase the flow of milk, and give special hardness to butter. 
Four pounds per diem in many cases is not considered an excess. Not more 
than 2J lbs. per diem is considered desirable in most cases for 1,000 lbs. live 
weight. The advantages to be derived from its use are not as great with pigs, 
sheep and horses, as they are with milch cows. Composition varies from 20 
to 50 per cent, protein for 8 to 18.5 per cent. oil. In most cases the meals 
have a yellow hue, and those in which ground hulls are reasonably absent 
may be considered the most desirable. 

Crude fibre. "White crude fibre makes up the walls and cells of plants. 
It is of a very variable composition; when obtained from hay it may contain 
45.5 per cent, of carbon, and when from other sources very much more. There 
are several substances in combination with it; but from a practical standpoint 
those are overlooked. The percentage of crude fibre varies very considerably, 
as beet leaves may contain 2 per cent, of thi.'! substance, and salt marsh hay 
over 30 per cent. 



DEFIKITIONS AND TECHIS'ICAL COKSIDERATIOKS. 341 

Cubic meter is equivalent to 264.2 gallons. 

Defecation. With the view to the purification of beet juices, they are 
submitted to a liming, which operation is known as defecation. 

Desiccation. When organic substances have their moisture removed, 
they are desiccated; this in other words is drying. 

Digestibility. — Factors (jovernmg digestibility. There are many con- 
ditions that afl'ect the digestibility of a fodder. These may be divided into 
two important classes; on the one hand, the individual characteristics of each 
animal under observation; on the other, the kind and composition of ration used. 

Ruminating animals appear to digest certain forages with exactly the same 
ease; the variation between the digestive powers of cattle and goats, for ex- 
ample, is so slight that it need not be considered. Comparative experiments 
with horses are not within the scope of this present writing. What has been 
said respecting different ruminating animals, applies to species of the same 
breed, for example, with sheep; Merinos, Southdowns, etc., when stall-fed on 
clover hay or other fodder digest the same ration in about the same propor- 
tion. Wolff says that the digestibility of a fodder is too frequently confounded 
with its nutritive value. The latter may vary with tlie breed, as it depends 
upon the appetite of the animal, which means that the amount of fodder con- 
sumed daily depends upon individual characteristics. On the other hand, 
the digestibility relates to per cent. , regardless of the faulty conditions of the 
animal's digestive functions. Experiments prove that the age of itie animal 
or its degree of development has A^ery little influence (?), the necessary condi- 
tions being that they be thoroughly weaned and that the fodder given be suit- 
able for the purpose intended and of an agreeable flavor. Investigations made 
at Proskau show that these facts are true, even in cases where sheep are two 
years old. They would not hold good in cases where the fodder is of difficult 
assimilation, the length of life of an animal then depending upon its powers of 
digestion, so as to be able to draw suflicient nutrient from fodder for its vital 
sustenance. 

Under these circumstances it is evident tliat individual characteristics must 
also be considered. When an animal is young, and full of life, the chances 
for having a perfect digestion are certainly better than with those more ad- 
vanced in years whose circulation is more or less active. Experiments coming 
under the writer's notice appear to prove that nitric elements are more easily 
digested in very young animals than in those a year old; but as previously 
said, the difference is very slight. Great differences may be observed in the 
same animal at different periods of its existence; the variation may be even 
greater than it is with different animals of same breed. Weike has remarked 
that in feeding sheep the proportion of organic substances digested may be 
reduced 7 per cent, and cellulose 15 per cent., as compared with normal con- 
ditions. 

It is curious to observe that the animal which has the best digestion is not 
necessarily the one that will most rapidly increase in weight; in other words, 
the amount of fodder consumed has far greater influence upon the augmenta- 



)42 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



tion of adipose tissue than has the coefficient of digestibility. Animals that 
are stunted or badly fed when young, show the effect of their poorly developed 
condition by the poor working of their digestive organs. 

What was said respecting the digestibility of a fodder taken as a whole, is 
not entirely true ■when the components of which it is composed are considered 
separately. We have for the following coefficients of digestibility of food 
components for different animals : 

Coefficients of Digestibility fob Foddee Components. 



Animals experi- 
mented on. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Nitrogen 
free extract. 


Fibre. 




0.57 
0.57 
0.65 
0.60 


0.61 
0.65 
0.64 
0.44 


0.72 
0.70 
0.66 
0.64 


58 




0.61 




0.60 


Goats 


0.62 



From which data one might draw the following conclusions : Sheep and cows 
do not utilize the protein as advantageously as oxen and goats; they, however, 
issimilate better the nitrogen free extract than do the animals last mentioned. 
The influence of work upon digestion is a very important factor too fre- 
quently overlooked. Experiments have been made upon horses showing 
that the coefficient of digestibility was almost entirely independent of work 
done. In other words, when a horse did "A" foot pounds of work per diem 
the proportion of organic substances digested in the ration was exactly the 
same as when the animal did " 2 A " foot pounds during the same interval. 
What applies to organic substances applies also to protein, cellulose, nitrogen 
free extract, etc. The amount digested of these remains the same whatever, 
within reasonable limits, be the work done. Just how far this would apply to 
oxen, and other farm animals that may be employed for their muscular power 
we are unable to say. The influence of the composition and kind of ration 
used upon its digestibility is made very evident when we consider that the 
function of digestion depends upon the extent to which the gastric juice acts 
upon the molecules of each element of which the ration is composed. 

This coefficient must necessarily vary, not only with each plant, but also 
with the same plant, depending upon its age, method of harvesting and keep- 
ing. What has been said in regard to plants, refers more particularly to 
coarse fodders; the by-fodders used and their composition have also an im- 
portant influence not to be overlooked. If the ration varies in weight from 
day to day, the per cent, of digestibility of each of its components remains 
constant. Wolflf's experiments at Hohenheim and elsewhere demonstrated 
beyond cavil that this is almost mathematically correct. The animals ex- 
perimented with were fed on hay. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 343 

A fact now generally admitted is that cattle in general, when in a good 
healthy condition, will eat the amount of fodder per diem that their require- 
ments may demand: but it is not admissible that, by reducing the value of a 
ration, a greater assimilation can be realized. The coefficient of digestibility 
remains constant whether one, two or three pounds of clover hay are fed to 
sheep per diem without addition of other fodders. All these experiments are 
very limited and the conclusions obtained are to be accepted only with a cer- 
tain reserve. 

It is admitted that every element is digested in the same manner regardless 
of the condition in which it is furnished, whether in a dry or fresh state. At 
first this seems to be a paradox, but can not be doubted, as it agrees with prac- 
tical tests made under most varied conditions. An essential requisite is that 
the fresh and dried fodders be exactly ot the same composition. "While such 
results may be obtained with fresh or dried beet cossettes, with coarse fodders 
it is almost impossible to realize them, as the method of harvesting and dry- 
ing may have great influence. The exact influence that the water of a fodder 
has upon milk, is still an open question. Whether water added to dry cossettes, 
for example, produces the same effect as the water contained in sliced beets, 
experiments have not yet been made in sufficient number to determine. The 
method of storing coarse fodders has considerable influence on their digesti- 
bility. Experiments upon hay show that 62 per cent, of its protein was 
digested when used, after being recently harvested; only 54 per cent, was 
digested three months later, while the digestibility of crude fibre and nitrogen- 
free extract remained almost constant. The great losses attributed to coarse 
fodders are frequently due to there having been some neglect in siloing. The 
period of development of a plant has considerable influence on its digestibility; 
if fed during the first period the fibre is very tender and is almost entirely assimi- 
lated. Seventy-one per cent, of protein of green clover, cut before flowering, 
when fed to an ox was digested, while several months later only 40 per cent, 
was digested. The early cut fodders contain a much smaller percentage of 
protein than is found later, which is another explanation of its increased di- 
gestibility. To these conditions must be added the influence of climate, soil, 
fertilizer, etc. Method of preparing a fodder has an important influence 
upon its digestibility — cooking, maceration, etc.. may give good results in 
special ways. Hellriegel and Lucanus, by a series of experiments, demon- 
strated that straw that had been fermented and fed to animals underwent no 
variation in its coefficient of digestibility. With hay the digestibility of 
cellulose was slightly ircreased, while on the other hand, the digestibility of 
nitrogen-free extract was lessened. .Just why this should be the case is not 
stated. There can be no doubt that the palatability of a fodder may be in- 
creased by judicious preparation, under which circumstance animals eat very 
much more than they would have done had the special preparation not been 
resorted to. Consequently, satisfactory results may be thus obtained, notwith- 
standing the fact that the percentage of nutrients assimilated would be only to 
a limited extent increased. What has been said of coarse fodders, applies 
equally to concentrated fodders. Kiihn and Mockern have shown this to be 



344 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

'the case by feeding to oxen acidulated bran, that had been previously saturated 
in hot water, whei'eby the digestibility of its protein had decreased. By heat- 
ing bran with alkalies, very much the same result was obtained. 

Concentrated feeds ; their influence upon digestion. As has been previously 
pointed out, various conditions, such as age, method of harvesting and keeping, 
etc., of coarse fodders, influence their digestibility, and concentrated or by- 
fodders added to make up the ration, must also be considered. The digesti- 
bility of these when fed alone, is not the same as when commingled with hay, 
etc. A fact to be constantly remembered, is that while in some cases the by- 
fodder may help the digestion of coarse fodders, if not properly used the effect 
will be depressing. To fully determine the influence of a by-fodder upon 
digestion, it should be added in increasing quantities to a ration, so that, 
knowing the digestibility of the compound considered as a whole, and also 
that of the coarse fodder separately, by subtraction an idea may be had of the 
influence of this fodder. These results are not very accurate, but are suffi- 
ciently so for the calculation of rations. If in the various experiments made 
the same coefficient of digestibility is obtained, it would give the digesti- 
bility of the by -fodder added; if changes have occurred, the difference of 
digestibility would show what the depressing effect had been. In all 
these experiments it is supposed that the digestibility of hay has remained 
unaltered. In all such experiments, it must be understood that the coefficient 
of digestibility means the result obtained by dividing the digestible protein by 
the carbohydrates, including digestible crude fat reduced to its equivalent of 
starch by the factor 2.25. Experiments of Schulze and Maercker show that 
the addition of albuminoids to a ration has no depressing effect. These experi- 
ments were upon sheep that received 2.2 lbs. of hay per diem, to which were 
added 120 grams wheat gluten containing 78 per cent, albumin; in the second 
series 262 grams of gluten were added. 

The proportion of digested protein of hay remained almost unchanged; the 
difference noticed may be ignored in view of the fact that some of it was not 
entirely assimilated; for ciude fibre, etc., the depression was very slight, the 
difference becoming even smaller when the whole ration was considered. 

It may consequently be concluded that gluten is almost entirely digested, 
and that albuminoids, taken as a whole, have very little influence upon the 
digestibility of a fodder. It is interesting to examine the influence of nitro- 
genous by-fodders, where the coefficient varies from 1-1 to 1-5. These have 
very little influence upon the by-fodders to which they may be added. Experi- 
ments in sheep, goat and oxen feeding were made with rape, cake, bean, cotton 
seed, meal, crushed beans, etc. Other by-fodders, such as oil cake, distillers' 
residuum, etc., would lead to the same results. It is important to understand 
that in these concentrated fodders each element has its own special digestibility 
that remains nearly the same, notwithstanding the percentage of these used in 
the ration. For example, 90 per cent, of the protein substances of peas and 
other vegetables of the same class may be digested by ruminating animals, 85 
per cent, when in flax oil cake, etc. On the other hand, the proportion of 
digestible protein of coarse fodders remains nearly the same when fed alone or 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 345 

m conjunction with other fodders. The influence of grains (nutritive relation 
1-5 to 8) has not been examined as thorouglily as the importance of the subject 
demands. The experiments of Hofmeister and Haubuer may be cited : The 
proportions between hay and oats fed varied from 1-1.76 to 1-3.30; about 78 
per cent, of the protein of oats was digested. 

Numerous experiments lead one to conclude that when the nutritive relation 
is 1-5.5 there is no depression in the digestion of a coarse fodder eaten at the 
same time as the concentrated by-fodder. When the digestibility is made 
1-8 to 10, the digestibility of coarse fodder decreases. 

Digestibility of crude protein. The digestibility of crude protein in a fodder 
depends upon the kind considered, reaching 80 per cent, in some cases. In 
good hay the digestibility of protein seems to depend upon the proportion be- 
tween it and the organic substances, while cellulose also takes an active part, 
and has an important influence upon the result. Many formulae have been 
proposed, having for their objec't the mathematical determination of the di- 
gestibility of a fodder. As the results depend upon the percentage of protein, 
their accuracy rests upon a series of practical experiments giving averages; 
the coefEcient can then he used to a great advantage. If we admit the 
theory of a partial fermentation in the intestinal canal as was supposed in dis- 
cussing the digestibility of cellulose, it must not oe forgotten that there would 
follow a loss of protein. Tappeimer estimates this to be 10 per cent., which 
cannot be accounted for; but as regards this assertion, nothing is certain, as 
the loss may be only apparent, for Kirschner's experiments appear to prove 
that this loss largely depends upon the percentage of carbohydrates in the 
fodder. When these are in excess, they prevent the fermentation of protein 
in the intestinal tube. Before giving some interesting examples of experiments 
having in view the digestibility of protein and formulse relating to same, it is 
well to point out their weak side, which is that they are solely based upon 
chemical transformations and no allowance is made for the physical character- 
istics, which are variable and must be considered in each special case. The 
experiments having in view the determination of the digestibility of protein 
have become so numerous that an average of a few hundred of them gives a 
coeflicient that may be considered mathematically correct. 

Some important observations to determine the influence of pepsin upon the 
digestibility of protein, were conducted under the auspiicfes of Stutzer, later by 
PfeifTer. The fodder was first treated by an acid solution of pepsin, then by an 
alkaline extract of pancreatic fluid; excrements were also treated in very much 
the same manner. The results obtained were almost identical with those of 
the natural digestion of sheep. In five experiments, the fodder used varied 
in each case, 1st meadow hay, 2d meadow hay and oil cake. 3d same as 
second but dried diffusion cossettes added, 4th clover hay, 5th clover hay, oil 
cake and diflfusion cossettes fresh. If 100 represents the total protein in each 
case, the following proportions of crude protein of the ration were not dis- 
solved or digested : 



316 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



1st. 


2d. 


3d. 


4th. 


5th. 


20.57 %. 


14.41 %. 


13.22 %. 


10.83 %. 


10.69 %. 


21.46 %. 


15.4 %. 


13.65 %. 


11.32 fo. 


9.93 %. 



Artificial digestion 
Natural digestion . 

The proportions would be much higher if no allowance were made for the 
nitrogen furnished by the body during assimilation. Kellnei-'s experiments 
show that for every 100 parts of dry digested substances, there is at least h, 
part of nitrogen furnished by the body, etc. As the number of comparative 
experiments between natural and artificial digestion is very limited, it would 
be a mistake to attach too much importance to any of them or to abandon exist- 
ing coefficients of digestibility to adopt those based upon artificial digestion. 

A fact to be borne constantly in mind is that the digestibility. of protein 
is the most important question relating to cattle feeding; on it success de- 
pends. However, even when these nitrogenous substances are not digested, 
they are not entirely lost, as they are subsequently used upon the soil as fer- 
tilizers. The plant laboratory does slowly what might have been accomplished 
rapidly in the stomach. A complete assimilation is doubly advantageous to 
the farmer, as more meat is produced on the one hand, and on the other the 
nitric elements in the fertilizers are nearly the same as they would have been 
had they contained protein in excess. In the latter case it is taken up 
slowly by the plant in growing, while M^hen in a more soluble form, such as 
urea, the absorption is almost immediate- Numerous investigators, Henne- 
berg, Kuhn, Schultze, etc., have demonstrated that when the digestive ratio 
diminishes, the coefficient of digestibility of protein decreases. The use of 
so-called nutritive equivalents based upon their percentage of nitrogen is not 
accepted by all authorities. Stohmann's experiments point to the fact that it 
is possible to admit a formula having a variable factor so as to make allow- 
ances for each special case, the value of which should be based upon practical 
experiments. 

The Stohmann formula now generally accepted was not the first; and many 

more recent ones are very satisfactory and give results that are sufficiently 

correct for most practical purposes. 

^ . „ ,. ..... ^ . Fats + Nitrogen free extract 

Coefficient of digestibility or protein = — =r — -—. — — ^, i i j — z. 

° •' ^ Protein + Carbohydrates. 

Digesiibility of carlohydrates. As previously mentioned, carbohydrates have 
a decided influence on the digestibility of feeds, upon protein and crude fibre 
substances especially. In the experiments of Stutzer and Isbert to determine 
the artificial digestion of carbohydrates without fat, it is shown that they may 
be dissociated by the action of ferments into two parts, one of which is digestible 
and the other indigestible. Here again the results in artificial digestion must 
not be confounded witli those of digestion under normal conditions; in the latter 
there is a series of micro-organisms which have an important influence and may 
in a measure dissolve the carbohydrates to a greater extent than would have been 
possible by the action of ferments considered alone. Attention is called to the 
importance of undertaking some new experiments in this direction, to deter- 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 347 

mine the actual percentage of carbohydrates that is soluble; this being known, 
the digestibility of crude fibre could be entirely ignored. Wolff discussing 
the subject, says that no data can possibly be accepted unless shown to be true 
by practical experiments upon living animals. Of all the carbohydrates hav- 
ing the greatest influence upon digestion, starch heads the list. Numerous 
experiments upon every kind of animal have demonstrated tliat when its pro- 
portion in coarse fodder is higher than 10 per cent, of the dry matter, the in- 
fluence is noticeable; when reaching 15 per cent., the effect is slight, but is 
very great when it attains 25 to 30 per cent. In the experiments of Schulze 
and Maercker, 800 grams of meadow hay were fed with 230 grams of starch; 
the digestibility of hay fell from 54 to 32 per cent. , or a loss of 41 per cent, of 
the digestible proportion. Consequently, upon general principles, it may be 
admitted that by the addition of starch in quantities representing ^- of the 
total dry substances of a coarser fodder, there is a depression of 15 per cent, in 
the digestibility of crude protein and at least 25 per cent, for ^ starch, and 40 
per cent, when the starch is ^ of the weight of dry substances. These results 
depend upon the age and kind of fodder; if a by-fodder consisting mainly of 
oil cake be added in sufficient quantities, the effect of starch may be entirely 
neutralized. 

Sugar has very much the same effect as starch, but to a much smaller ex- 
tent. Starch and sugar have a secondary effect upon the digestibility of 
nitrogen-free extract and fat, so long as the by-fodder is digested, which occurs 
when the fodder is poor in nitrogen as compared with non-nitrogenous sub- 
stances. 

The feeding of sugar to animals in some countries is a very general practice, 
not always in the form of pure sugar, but as molasses containing 50 per cent, 
sugar. Starch on the other hand is seldom used, unless it be in the residuum 
from starch factories or in potatoes. Boots contain percentages of sugar that 
depend upon their variety. However, it must not be forgotten that starch 
and sugar when presented in this shape, have a very different action than 
when fed alone, due to the fact that they have other elements in combination, 
among which may be mentioned protein. 

It is desired to call attention to some interesting experiments made by 
Wolff, the results of which are given in the following table. The roots added 
to the fodders are supposed to be entirely digestible, and the depression 
noticed refers to other fodders making up the ration. Whether roots 
are wholly digested or not, does not influence the results obtained. It was 
noticed that as the quantity of roots used increased, so did the depression 
in the assimilation of the various elements of which the fodder is composed. 
In the table herewith the quantities given refer to dry substances of by-fodder 
as compared with coarse fodder. 



348 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Vakying Digestibility of Coaese Fodder when Fed -niTH Eoots. 



Proportion between 

roots and coarse 

fodder. 


Crude 
protein. 


Nitrogen 
free extract. 


Crude 
fibre. 


Organic 
substances. 




Parts of coarse fodder undigested. 


i 
itoi 

Jtol 


5 

10 
15 

25 


3 
5 

7 
10 


4 
7 

10 
14 


4 

6 

9 

12 



It has been noticed that potatoes have a very rauch greater depressing effect 
than beets for example, but this was more especially noticeable when a large 
amount was used. The depression was the greatest when the nutritive ratio 
was the narrowest. One may take these facts into consideration when calcu- 
lating tlie components for a ration. 

Experiments made do not prove that beets when entering a ration affect 
its digestibility according to ajiy ratio that may be determined in advance. 
Upon general principles, it may be admitted that fodders rich in amides intro- 
duce carbohydrates or nitrogen-free extract into the ration, under which cir- 
cumstances their coefficient of digestibility is very high. Experiments made 
in feeding beets to sheep show it to be 90 to 95; as for the pig, his digestive 
organs are much better adapted to potatoes than beets. 

When considering these experiments, they must be looked at as a whole 
and not in detail, and the safest rule is to rely upon excess rather than a 
deficiency, especially of protein. For this reason, the writer has constantly 
recommended that in feeding beets and pulps to cattle care be taken to add 
not only sufficient straw, but also a reasonable amount of oil cake. 

Digestibility of fatty mhstances. In most works upon cattle feeding, too little 
importance is given to the digestibility of fatty substances. The ether ex- 
tracts, properly speaking, are more or less digestible, but too much reliance 
should not be placed upon these; for example chlorophyl or the coloring mat- 
ter of plants is soluble in ether, but yet is not digestible. The same may be 
said of wax and rosins, so that the digestibility of crude fat (ether extract) 
depends upon various circumstances which are largely influenced by the special 
fodder. Sixty per cent, of the fatty substance of fresh clover is digestible, 
while in certain straws only 35 per cent, can be utilized. 

The importance of using a by-fodder containing oil has been appreciated for 
centuries. The experiments of Crusias have long since demonstrated that 
fatty substances increase the digestibility of protein and carbohydrates. How- 
ever, on this question opinions differ. Straw can certainly be better utilized 



DEFINITIOXS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 349 

by the addition of fat to a fodder. It is important to use fatty substances in 
moderation, otherwise ruminating animals soon lose their appetites; this is 
more particularly the case when oil is added to a fodder, and is not true to the 
same extent when the crude fat of a b}--fodder is considered. Some German 
experiments prove that 100 grams per diem may be fed without influencing 
the weight of an animal one way or the other. 

The best proportion between fats and protein is claimed by some to be 

Fats 1 1 



Protein 



Experiments appear to show that beyond 1-2.2 the fats simply pass into the 
excrements without being utilized. 

Crudus's experiments appear to show almost conclusively that the increase 
in weight of a sucking calf does not depend upon the protein or milk sugar, 
but upon the butter contained in the milk of the mother. This should be 
about o per cent, of total milk drunk. 

Henneberg and Stohmann's experiments also show that the crude fatty sub- 
stances contained in a coarse fodder are not equally digestible in all fodders, 
and that it is not well to assume that more than 1-3 is assimilated; the amount 
to be added consequently increases with the quantity of concentrated foddere 
used in a ration. 

Investigations relating to the digestibility of fats are not as accurate as those 
upon albuminoids. Several sources of error constantly occur, due to the fat 
found in excrements that comes from the bile, which, if not deducted, would 
lead to the supposition that the fat was less digestible than it actuallv is. 
This source of error is slight when the fodder_ contains considerable fat, but is 
great when the original percentage was low. 

Digestibility of fibre. To estimate the amount of cellulose digested is more 
difficult than one might suppose. If the percentage of crude fibre found in 
the fodder fed and excrement obtained be reduced to pure cellulose and lignin, 
based upon their percentage of carbon, and one result subtracted from the 
other, the amount obtained representing digestibility would be much higher 
than the reality. However, from a practical point of view this method 
answers every purpose. The most important investigations relating to digesti- 
bility of cellulose are those of Henneberg and Stohmann. It has been con- 
cluded that 30 to 70 per cent, of crude fibre is digestible, depending upon the 
animal and manner of feeding. Pure cellulose contains about 44 per cent, of 
carbon or about the same as starch, and it is mainly in this state that it is 
assimilated. Owing to the excessive length of their intestinal canal ruminants 
have a special facility for digesting crude cellulose. In the experiments men- 
tioned in the foregoing, in which it was found that oat straw had a coefficient 
of digestibility of 0.44, wheat straw 0.39, clover hay 0.67, etc, the protein 
had an important influence. Weiske's experiments upon sheep appear to 
show that the cellulose dissolved during the last stages of digestion had very 
little eflfect towards economizing albumin during the process of assimilation. 



ooO . FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

There are numerous theories attempting to prove that cellulose undergoes a 
partial fermentation in the intestinal canal, during which period there is the 
generation of marsh gas. One fact is certain, and numerous figures could be 
given proving such to be the case — it is mainly pure cellulose that is digested 
and only a small portion of the crude cellulose. Any tlieory respecting trans- 
formation of cellulose during passage through the intestinal canal would apply 
to other fodders that are difficult of assimilation. 

The digestibility of cellulose may be calculated by the Wolff formula: 

Digestibility of C.= Crude fibre 



Protein -|- fat and nitrogen-free extract- 
Some recommend the Mehlin formula: 

Digestibility of C. = f X Fat + nitrogen-free extract - protein 

Crude fibre. 

The results obtained by estimating with these two formulae are not the same. 

A part of the nitrogen-free extract of a fodder may be considered indigest- 
ible and is thrown out in the excrements. 

Mehlin says that the coefficient of digestibility of nitrogen-free extract may 
be calculated by the formula: 

Digestibilitv of nitrogen-free extract = ti— — - — -JI — 2 — 

Crude fibre. 

As a general thing starch and sugar may be considered digestible; notwith- 
standing this fact however, a certain amount of them is found in the excre- 
ments when fed in excess. 

It is maintained that there is a sort of compensation betAveen the crude cel- 
lulose that is digested and the nitrogen-free extract that escapes digestion; 
consequently it is admitted that the amount of nitrogen-free extract found in 
the excrement represents the digested crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract, or 
in other words, the digested non-nitrogenous matter exclusive of fat. 

The results obtained in this direction are very misleading, as it frequently 
happens that the nitrogen-free extract in the dung is higher than could be 
theoretically possible. 

The sum of digested nitrogen-free extract and crude fibre is equal to the 
total nitrogen-free extract and fat. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



351 



Relation Between Digestibility op Niteogen-feee Extkact, Crude 
Fibre and Fat. 





Digested. 


Total. 


Digested. 


Kind of Fodder. 


Crude 
fibre. 


Nitrogen- 
free extract. 


Nitrogen-free 
extract -|- fat. 


Oat straw • 

Wheat straw ...... 

Clover hay 

Meadow hay 


3.790 
1.685 
5.140 
3.695 


3.215 

1.085 

11.490 

G.965 


7.005 

2.770 

16.630 

10.685 


7.245 

2 775 

17.265 

10.460 



The younger the plant, the more readily is its cellulose digested; as the 
percentage of crude cellulose is then at a minimum, the digested proportion 
of non-nitrogenous substances is consequently greater. 

In the experiments of Hohenheim with clover of difTerent ages, many inter- 
esting facts are demonstrated beyond cavil. If R is the quotient obtained 
by dividing the digested non-nitrogenous substances by the nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, determined by analysis of the fodder, and C the percentage of crude 
fibre digested, we have the following. The age of the clover depended upon 
the stage of the experiment. 

Digestibility of Crude Cellulose in Clover. 



111.9 
60.0 



105.5 

53. 



101.8 
49.6 



88.5 
38.8 



From these experiments, it is concluded that the digestibility of crude cel- 
lulose diminishes more rapidly than all the non-nitrogenous substances taken 
together, but is to a certain extent influenced by the percentage of crude cel- 
lulose present, which shows that the theory of compensation mentioned in 
the foregoing is not absolutely accurate. 

It is admitted that, with the exception of fat, all the digested non-nitro- 
genous substances of a fodder are transformed into sugar or some saccharine 
substance, and that it is assimilated in this form. Consequently from a prac- 
tical point of view, we may admit that the mass of non-nitrogenous substances 
of a fodder are simply assimilated as if they were carbohydrates and fat. The 



352 



FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 



nitrogen-free extract that has remained undigested has a composition very like 
lignin (55 to 56 per cent, carbon) and is of secondary importance. 

It is interesting to call attention to Weende's experiments upon sheep and 
oxen in which it is demonstrated that wliat is known as water extract, or total 
solid matter tiiat may be extracted from a fodder by boiling water, gives us an 
excellent idea of the percentage of nitrogen-free extract that may be digested. 

Stohmann's experiments in this same direction gave the following results : 

Digestibility op Nitrogen-fbee Extract as Determined by Water 

Extraction. 



Kind of Fodder. 


Substances 

soluble in hot 

water. 


Nitrogen- 
free extract 
digested. 


Error. 




3.25 

0.94 

11.24 

6.42 


3.17 

1.07 

11.30 

6.36 


+ 0.08 
13 






06 




46 







Even in this case important variations are noticeable. This method has 
never received a general application for the reason that no known proportion 
exists between the digested portion of the nitrogen-free extract of a fodder and 
the substances of a fodder soluble in water, the latter containing not only non- 
nitrogenous substances, but also albumin and ash. This method has, how- 
ever, a certain practical utility, as the digestibility of coarse and green fodders 
is in direct ratio to the percentage of solid matter that may be extracted by 
boiling water. 

Digestibility of phosphoric acid. In some special cases, the addition of a lime 
phosphate to a fodder may render excellent services; it may be essential to 
secure a complete nutritive effect, notwithstanding the fact t^hat the digesti- 
bility of the fodder considered as a whole has undergone very little change. In 
case of young cattle this is especially important in certain districts where 
soils are deficient in phosphoric acid, as the crops also suffer in this direc- 
tion and a lime phosphate should be added to rations of full-grown animals. 
Many experiments prove that the calcic phosphate is assimilated in the intes- 
tinal canal and supplies the deficiency when needed. When coarse fodders 
are fed alone, very little phosphoric acid is found in the urine. When feed- 
ing milch cows the phosphoric acid is especially important; in this, as in other 
cases if more is fed than is needed, the excess is thrown out in the excrement. 
An interesting fact relating to this question is that the urine of carnivora and 
herbivora is identical when they are fed on milk or when starved and compelled 
to live on their own substance. This fact shows almost beyond cavil that whea 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3o3 

there is a dilierence it must be attributed to the ration used. The percentage 
of lime entering a ration has also an important influence upon the phosphoric 
acid found in the urine, for the reason that phospliates are formed and are 
either assimilated or rejected as the case may be. When feeding beets in some 
special cases, calcic phosphate may be replaced by calcic carbonate. 

Digestibility of salt. In discussing fodders in general the importance of salt 
was pointed out, and at present it is well to say that sodic cblorid is more of 
a condiment than an actual food, as it stimulates the organs by indirect means 
and thus increases the digestibility of other fodders. From the experiments of 
Salzmiinde, it may be concluded that the action of salt is very variable; some- 
times it appears to favor digestion, and then again it has a retarding action. 
It is a mistake, from a fattening point of view, to confound the advantages to 
be derived from forcing consumption of fodders by exciting the appetite, with 
what occurs when the weight of an animal is augmented by a complete diges- 
tion and consequent assimilation of the food furnished, as an animal may 
consume more than it can assimilate and throw out the surplus in excrements. 

Digestibility of axh. Potassa of fodders does not appear to be utilized during 
digestion, as shown by the fact that 95 to 97 per cent, is found in the excre- 
ments. The advantages of potassic phosphate do not come within the scope of 
this present writing as they refer to swine feeding with special meat com- 
pounds. Magnesia is paitly utilized; just liow, remains to be demonstrated. 
As a general tiling 20 to 30 per cent, of the total magnesia of a fodder is found 
in the excrement, while of lime 95 per cent, is utilized, leaving but 5 per 
cent, in excrement. Sulphuric acid and chlorin apparently take no part in 
the assimilation cf the body, and what applies to them may be said of all other 
mineral elements, etc., which the fodder contains. 

These facts should be suflScient to convince the farmers of the importance of 
carefully collecting both liquid and solid excrements for use upon the soil as 
fertilizers. It is too frequently maintained that beets, for example, exhaust 
the soil, forgetting that by proper rotation of crops and fertilizer utilization, 
the fertility may be indefinitely maintained. 

Digestion. — Cattle in general. The main object of digestion is to bring 
about an assimilation which is necessary to build up the wastes of the body. 
The blood being the principal distributor, the liquids or solids to be utilized 
must pass by osmosis through the membranes of the various organs in which 
they are received. The principle of osmosis enables the crystalloids to 
move through the tissue while the colloids or gum-like substances cannot 
pass. It is important to note that the passage in question depends upon the 
nature of the substance. In some cases no transformation need be effected; in 
others chemical combinations are necessary. These modifications, taken as a 
whole, are what we call digestion. It is important not to confound laboratory 
chemical changes with those of the many digestive processes. The entire 
transformations of what might be called digestive chemistry, are very different 
from what is admitted as being true chemistry as now taught in the text books, 
and considerable confusion might arise if the two were not separately con- 



854 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

sidered. Digestion taken as a whole depends upon the mouth, gullet, stomach, 
small and large intestines, and the several secretions. In the mouth, the lips, 
teeth and tongue, all have special functions. Farm animals when living 
under natural conditions, are compelled to hunt for their food; tiiey thus take 
more exercise and develop more muscle than when stall-fed. Ruminating 
animals draw up their food with the-ir tongue, which always has a rough sur- 
face; the shape of their lips and teeth is such as to offer but little assistance 
in collecting food. Horses on the other hand use their lips and with the 
assistance of the incisor teeth on the lower jaw cut the grass or herbs found 
in pasturage. Cattle when using their tongue give their heads a swinging 
motion which breaks the tuft of grass held by the tongue and pressed against 
the lips. The nutrient thus collected is crushed by the teeth on the lower jaw 
against the hard bone-like substance of the upper maxillary. The cheeks help 
considerably in either passing the semi-crushed or ground product from one 
side to another, or holding it during mastication. 

It is to be noted that in nearly all the herbivorous animals the lower jaw is 
much smaller than the upper. It frequently happens that when one side is 
working, the other is separated nearly an inch. On the other hand, sheep- 
grazing means that the field is eaten almost to the surface of the ground; the 
horse is more wasteful, and cattle still more so. In the mouth the various 
salivary glands secrete special fluids of different consistency and composition, 
which each have special functions to fulfill; taken collectively they are known 
as saliva, and contain about 1 per cent, solid matter. 

The saliva proper consists mainly of water; besides mucus, it contains albu- 
min, alkaline carbonates, alkaline chlorids, alkaline phosphates, and a sub- 
stance known as ptyalin, a ferment having a very important function to fill, 
which consists in converting starch into sugar, a transformation that occurs 
mainly in the stomach in presence of other secretions. After mastication, tlie 
food is soon shaped into a rounded mass or bolus,* which form allows its pas- 
sage into the throat with the least possible difficulty. The time or duration 
of mastication, varies with the animal; practical experiments appear to show 
that a horse needs one and a half hours to masticate four pounds of hay, dur- 
ing which interval there will be formed about sixty boluses. The horse in its 
normal state can bring its teeth together some seventy times per minute, when 
there is an ample flow of saliva. The periods change, and Colin's experiments 
show that when all the saliva is allowed to pour into the mouth, the duration 
of mastication for one bolus is about 32 seconds; if only one of the parotid 
glands is open, the duration is 84 seconds, and with both closed, the period is 
about 75 seconds. During these periods the number of strokes of the teeth 
vary from 38 to 74. It is not necessary to give similar examples for other 
animals. For the horse it was found that the saliva secretion amounted to 
about 12 lbs. of saliva per hour during hay feeding; with green food about 
half its weight of saliva is needed. 

*Ttie size of a bolus varies with the animal; for an ox it is twice the size that it is for 
a horse. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. dOO 

Foods after being partly masticated, pass into the gullet and full into the 
{)anncii; here they remain for a reasonable time, and soften in contact with saliva 
swallowed; those portions that are dissolved pass through into the second stom- 
ach (recticulum), then into a third and fourth stomach {manifolds and rennet). 
The coarser portions that have not been sufficiently masticated remain in the 
recticulum where they collect into a boll shape, when by special eontraction 
of the esophagean canal they return into the mouth and are again masticated 
and mixed with saliva; when this operation is completed, this food passes 
again through the esophagus into the third stomach or manifolds; by a 
special arrangement of muscles it cannot again return to the moutli; from the 
manifolds it reaches the fourth stomach (rennet). In perfectly matured ani- 
mals the liquids all fall into the paunch where they remain but a short time. 
Before a calf is weaned, the food passes into the rennet without undergoing the 
preliminary' stages that occur later; in fact the first three stomachs remain 
during this early stage in an almost embryonic condition. 

This process continues until the paunch is almost entirely empty. Between 
meals the emptying does not seem to be ever complete, as is made evident by 
the fact that in the excrement of cows one finds a mixture of the ration being 
fed and the one previously used. As pointed out elsewhere in this writing, 
four or five days frequently elapse before any fodder is completely eliminated 
from the system. 

Colin cites an example of a cow having fasted for two days and still having 
over 140 lbs. of dry fodder in the several compartments of its stomach. From 
the time the bolus enters the stomach, it is kept in constant motion, being 
more and more salivated with a fluid known as gastric juice. The total 
volume of this fluid secreted during twenty-four hours is enormous, and 
some authorities assert that it may reach one-fourth of the weight of the 
body. It contains water in considerable proportion, also special ferments, 
chlorids of sodium, potassium, calcium, and ammonia, also hydrochloric 
acid, ferric and magnesium phosphate. The principal ferment is pepsin, 
which depends upon a diluted acid for its action upon foods. The main func- 
tion of gastric juices is that of converting albuminoids into peptones. 

After leaving the fourth stomach, the food passes into the small intestine, 
where it comes in contact with very important secretions, such as bile and 
pancreatic juice. The bile is green in color gives an alkaline or neutral re- 
action and is secreted by the liver. Its composition varies with the animal; 
beside water and solids, it contains certain salts lecithin and cholesterin, fats, 
mucin and coloring substances, also inorganic salts. An ox, according to 
Colin, will throw out 5.7 lbs. of bile per diem, while a horse secretes 13 lbs.; 
there is a continued flow during the passage of the food through the intestines. 
The principal function of bile is that of aiding in the absorption of fats; some 
of the fat is transformed into glycerin and fatty acids. There follows a soap 
formation due to their combination with the alkalies of the bile; this soap 
helps the passage through the membranes of the intestines which assists in 
assimilation. Through the intervention of bile, food does not decompose 
during its passage through the intestines. There is another fluid also of very 



356 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

great importance, which is the pancreatic juice; it is, as its name implies, 
secreted by the pancreas and enters the intestines jointly with the bile. These 
two secretions by their combination have some role to iill which they cannot 
accomplish when acting separately. The pancreatic fluid like the ptyalin of 
saliva helps to convert starch into sugar; one gram is said to be sufficient to 
convert 40 kilos of starch into sugar. The pancreatic juice converts fat into 
salty acids and glycerin, and will change albuminoids into peptones; it will 
effect this ti-ansformation even in an alkaline solution. 

Food, during its passage through the intestine, undergoes an absorption or 
osmotic action. The small intestines are lined with protruding particles, 
called ' ' villi," whose role is to separate from the fluids, with which they come 
into contact, the lat, sugar, peptones and salts; these are forced to pass through 
the ducts of the lymphatic system. The fluid thus formed is known as chyle, 
and, owing to the fat held in solution, it has a milk-like appearance. 

During all these chemical and physical transformations, considerable inter- 
change occurs of which we know comparatively little. Besides the fluids 
mentioned which act upon foods during their passage through the intestinal 
canal, there are other secretions helping assimilation; for example, in the 
small intestine there is a special gland secretion which like the active principle 
of saliva will convert starch into sugar. As food progresses along the in- 
testinal canal, its nutritive value becomes less and less, and when reaching the 
second half of the large intestine it is almost an excrement, its color depend- 
ing upon the kind of fodder and the condition of the bile at the time of feed- 
ing. Upon general principles, we may admit that the large intestine of cattle 
in general serves as a storage during the passage of the fodder not entirely 
assimilated; there follows in the large intestine a sort of digestion due to the 
fermentation of cellulose which had thus far not been dissolved by the action 
of the digestive juices. In conclusion, it is to be said that all fodders are 
not equally acted upon by the gastric juice. In cereals, if the starch cells 
have not been thoroughly broken, they pass through the intestinal canal 
almost untouched. In order to get a satisfactory assimilation in feeding, it is 
desirable that the quantity of dry substance used correspond to that actually 
needed by the animal; it can vary from 30 to 70 lbs. per diem for a full grown 
ox. The organs of digestion may increase or decrease their capacity as the 
occasion may demand. Without doubt, the best results are obtained by feed- 
ing a uniform ration. The condition of digestion may constantly be ascer- 
tained by the analysis of excrement. 

DifFusion. Modern beet-sugar factories extract the sugar from beet 
slices by diffusion in an apparatus, called a battery, each compartment of which 
is termed a difTusor; hot water circulates from one diflfusor to the other, and 
the sugar passes from the cells of the tissues into the circulating water by a 
physical action known as osmatic diflTusion. 

Dried cossettes. The pressed residuum cossettes may be submitted to 
a special drying, the product obtained being known as dried cossettes. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDEEATIONS. 357 

Dry matter. "When a substance has been satisfactorily desiccated by 
heat, there remains what is known as dry matter. 

Enei'gy. Tiie capacity of doing work; the power of an organism. 

Etlier extract. In most text books, the ether extract is called " fat." 
Its estimation is very simple, consisting in drying the fodder and adding 
ether which will dissolve the fat and like substances. Its percentage varies 
very considerably in plants in general. 

Fatty substances. The fatty substances are tliose which may be dis- 
solved from feeding stuffs with ether, and necessarily include coloring matter, 
wax, etc. The fat is assimilated and burned to form heat and consequently 
energy, or it is stored up and deposited as fat when taken in excess. 

During the fat combustion the heat of the animal's body is supplied. An 
exertion of any kind is followed by fat burning, just as fuel is burned under a 
boiler. Fat necessarily plays a very important role during fattening of live 
stock as it accumulates in different parts of the body, gives it weight and in- 
creases its value from a butcher's standpoint. It is to be noted that only a 
small percentage of the fat enters the blood vessels forming part of the intes- 
tines, the larger portion passing through the lymphatics. While it is gener- 
ally admitted that fats undergo very little change when forming part of the 
circulation, the fact nevertheless remains that the role they subsequently play 
in the tissues varies with the animal fed. 

Experiments have been made to determine the heat units of feeds, and those 
relating to fat are of an exceptional interest. For this purpose a calorimeter 
is used, the substance to be tested is burned therein, and the heat given off is 
absorbed by water. Prof. Riibnei-'s experiments show that 235 parts of lean 
meat, when burned in the apparatus, give off' the same heat as 100 parts of fat. 
A gram of fat is shown to yield over twice the calories yielded by a gram of 
carbohydrates; for feeding purposes it is found that they are equally valuable 
as influencing protein consumption, hence they may be substituted one for the 
other. It must be noted that fodders containing considerable fat are difficult 
to digest and are expensive and therefore should be used with certain discre- 
tion. When considering ruminating animals in general, one had better rely 
upon carbohydrates which most feeds contain in reasonable proportions, and, 
which within themselves are furnished at a comparatively low cost; further- 
more, as they decrease the daily protein consumption, they keep the animal 
fed in a good healthy condition with a very restricted absorption of nitrog- 
enous substances. Respecting the influence of fat upon a decreased pro- 
tein consumption, Voit's experiments demonstrate beyond cavil, that the fat 
when fed alone, rather tends to increase than decrease the protein assimilated. 
This fat diet appeai-s to have very little influence upon the fat already stored 
up in the body, and as the fattening of live stock continues, the process of fat 
deposits is more and more diflicult from the feeder*' s standpoint. Experiments 
have been made in feeding fat and protein alone. When the quantity of pro- 
tein fed was the same from day to day and the amount of fat increased, the fat 



858 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

deposited was proportional to this increase. Other combinations showed that 
the fat deposited from protein was more tenacious than the fat having a fat- 
like origin. Under certain conditions of disease, large quantities of fat are 
deposited in the liver and other organs of the body, and it forms at the expense 
of the protein. It is said that the greatest amount of fat that can thus be 
formed is 51 per cent. At the ISfevv York experiment station, it has been 
demonstrated tliat tlie fat in the food explained the fat in the cow's milk 
especially dui'ing the last half of the feeding period. It is important to note 
that tlie fat percentage is very variable in some cases. In these experi- 
ments it was pointed out that the fut in question was the so-called crude fat or 
ether extract which contains other substances such as chlorophyl in the solu- 
tion. As fat can be formed from carbohydrates, as has been demonstrated for 
most animals, it is reasonable to suppose that the cow is not an exception. 
The transformation was thouglit impossible during the early stages of fattening, 
but at present it is considered a certainty and it has been well proved by the 
Lawes and Gilbert experiments that the fatty acids are absorbed and subse- 
quently deposited as fat. 

The Pettenkofer and Voit experiments showed that 100 parts of fat were 
about equal on an average to 175 parts of carbohydrates. The amount of fat 
in the body is very variable; while in the case of a fat calf it may be nearly 15 
lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight, it is 80 lbs. for a fattened ox, and there are two 
pounds of fat constituents for one pound of lean meat. 

Fat exists in the blood in minute quantities, say not more than 0.3 percent. 
In the bones and nerves it is found in greater amounts. It is especially found 
under the skin. Most of the fat cells of a living animal contain transparent 
fat. 

From whatever part of the body the fat is taken, it is almost identical in 
composition and furthermore, if existing in plants or in the body of an animal, 
its composition is always about tlie same, carbon 76 per cent., hydrogen 12, 
oxygen 11.5. 

Experiments relative to the digestibility of fat cannot be considered as en- 
tirely satisfactory in their results; they have, however, considerable scientific 
value for the estimation of the feeding value of a fodder. The poorer the 
fodder in fat, the greater will be the error committed. While such modes of 
estimation are not mathematical, they allow one feeding stuff to be compared 
with another. 

The production of fat may be calculated in advance based upon the gain or 
loss of carbon. To carry on a series of experiments of this kind demands very 
delicate appliances, in which one may measure very accurately the air thrown 
ofTby the lungs and perspiration, etc., besides that found in the urea. etc. On 
this subject, Armsby says: "If the comparison of the nitrogen in fodder and 
excrements shows that the body has neither gained nor lost albuminoids, then 
the carbon gained or lost was all in the form of fat. Every 100 parts of fat 
contain 76 parts of carbon, therefore every 76 parts of carbon shown by the 
experiment to have been gained or lost represent 100 parts of fat, or one part 
of carbon corresponds to 1.3 parts of fat." 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 359 

According to the old theory, which was that the non-nitrogenous sub- 
stances had one principal object, namely, to furnish fuel to the body, the 
comparative value of fat and carbohydrates was determined by the amount 
of heat easily produced. It was calculated that one pound of fat produces 
about 2.5 times the heat given out by one pound of carbohydrates. The pei'- 
centage of fat contained in plants is very variable; for beets it is 0.1 to 0.2, 
and in certain varieties of corn, it reaches 8 per cent., while certain oil seeds 
contain 40 per cent. As this is not all extracted during the industrial methods 
of extracting the oil, there remains a residuum containing 8 to 12 per cent. 

Femientation is the decomposition of varied molecules under the 
action of ferments. Decay, taken in the general acceptance of the word, is an 
oxidation. Putrefaction involves the fermentation of nitrogenous substances 
with the liberation of certain offensive gases. Acetic fermentation is the con- 
version of weak alcohols into vinegar. Butyric fermentation is the conver- 
sion of butter-fat into butyric acid. Lactic fermentation is the decomposition 
of milk. 

Fertilizers are plant foods. 

Fibrin. A substance that does not exist in an insoluble state in the 
circulating blood, but separates in a solid state shortly after the blood leaves 
the body. It may be obtained by stirring blood as it flows from a living body; 
the sticks used become covered with a white compound. It is tasteless, and 
when dried resembles albumin. Fibrin is a proteid. 

Forage is a food for horses, but it may be applied to cattle in general and 
is another name for feed. 

Fuel valiie is frequently measured in heat units or calories. One 
pound of digestible fat is estimated at 9.200 calories; one pound digestible car- 
bohydrates 4.200; one pound digestible protein 5.860 ealories. Knowing the 
composition of any feeding stuff, such as beets for example, in one hundred 
pounds there are 86.5 pounds water, 1.12 pounds protein, 10.21 pounds cai'bo- 
hydrates. When these are burned for furnishing energj^ work and the 
maintenance of the body there would result an amount of materials yielding 
49.445 calories. 

Gastric juice. A secretion of special glands of the stomach; it con- 
tains an important ferment known as pepsin. 

Germs are a portion of matter, having within itself the tendency to 
assume some living form; a spore, a seed are examples of germs. 

Gestation is the period the young need for their complete development 
from time of their conception until birth. 

Glncose is a substance obtained from starch through the action of a 
ferment; its varieties are numerous, among which one may mention dextrose 
and levulose. 

GliTten meals and gluten feeds. It is difficult for the breeder 
to exactly comprehend the difference between these two substances which 



360 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

are the residuum of glucose manufacture, wlien corn is used as a basis of 
the manufacture during the process of starch separation from tlie grain. After 
a proper soaking, lasting for several hours, etc., there follows a straining^ 
through bolting cloths, the germs and hulls being thus separated. The 
product may be dried and in some cases submitted to a preliminary treatment 
with naphtha to remove the oil, and this product is known as gluten feed. 
When the final lesiduum in the settling tanks after the oil is extracted is com- 
bined with the germs, it is sold as gluten meals. It is to be noted that the 
latter contain between 24 and 38 per cent, protein and an average of 8 per 
cent, fat, the former contain 12 to 24 per cent, protein and an average of 12.5 
per cent. fat. The introduction of gluten meals and feeds lias met with some 
difficulty owing to the possibility of their containing a certain percentage of 
sulphuric acid, which might be pernicious to the general health of the animal. 
The question is open to discussion. The product has at present the approval 
of most of the leading authorities of the country. The difference between the 
gluten meals and feeds that must not be overlooked is that the former contain 
more protein than the latter. 

Glycogen. This substance is a carbohydrate and is formed in the liver. 
Glycose is another name for ghicose. 

Gram, is equal to 0-035 ounce; it is one thousandth part of a kilogram. 
Gullet. In ruminants the passage between the mouth and first stomach. 

Guins In rations in general, gums are frequently formed in very small 
quantities; but in certain cases they must be taken into account. While gums 
are digestible, modern experiments give very little information as to their 
nutritive value. 

Hectare is two and a half acres (2.5 acres), 

Hemog'loljill is a crystalline substance existing in the corpuscles of 
blood, and to which their color is due; it is one of the oxygen carriers in the 
circulation. 

Herbivorous is a name given to those animals that feed on vegetation, 

Hydraiilic pi^esslng. During the early periods of beet sugar manu- 
facture, the finely divided beet pulp was submitted to the action of hydraulic 
presses, but these machines have now become obsolete. 

Hydroscopic. Property of absorbing moisture from the air. 
Intestines. Food during the process of being digested passes in its 
journey through the body through a final canal, known as the intestines. 

Invei't Stigar is a saccharine substance found in honey; it may be ob- 
tained by submitting cane sugar to the action of dilute acids- 
Kilogram. One kilogram is equivalent to 2.2 lbs. 
Kilog'rammeter means the mechanical work capable of raismg one 
kilo to the height of one meter. A horse-power is represented by 75 kilo- 
grammeters produced in one second. On the other hand, 425 kilogrammeters 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3G1 

correspond to a production of heat equivalent to a calorie, or the heat neces- 
sary to raise the temperature of one kilo of water one degree centigrade. 

Kilometer is 0.62 of a mile. 

Lactic acid. This product is one of the vegetable acids not to be over- 
looked in the theory of animal feeding. It is not thought to exist in any vege- 
table product in a normal state, but is the outcome of some organic and acid 
transformation. Beets and beet leaves contain this acid, and it is also found 
in the cossette residuum. 

During digestion, it appears to be formed from the carbohydrates; its action 
under these circumstances is that of eflfecting certain changes in the phosphoric 
acid; it penetrates into many of the capillaries and facilitates assimilation of 
certain nutrients. 

Iieg"lim.lll is a proteid compound, and may be considered as a vegetable 
casein. 

Ijevillose is the sugar found in fruit; it is also called fruit sugar or 
fructose. 

Xiime must be added to fodders consisting of beet cossettes, etc. It is 
needed for the bony tissue of the body, and is very frequently deficient in the 
composition of most feeding stuffs. 

Ijiine pliosphate is a substance formed by the combination of phos- 
phoric acid and lime. 

Xfitei* is about l.Oo quart. 

Lympll is the fluid in the lymphatic vessels, and is the filtration of the 
liquid parts of the blood througli the tissue of the capillaries. 

Ijyraj)liatic. Pertaining to the lympli. 
Meter is about 3.3 feet. 

Metliane is to be found in nature, chiefly in marshes, when decompo- 
sition of organic substances is in progress. 

Micro-organisms are organisms of microscopic size. 

MticoiTS, a term applied to tissues that secrete mucus. 

IN'arroTT ration means that the ratio existing between the protein and 
carbohydrates is small. An example of this is cotton-seed meal, 1:1.2, in 
which case the protein is nearly equal to the carbohydrates. 

New process linseed meal. The process is mainly based upon a 
naphtha-extractive mode. The meal contains from 26.5 to 40 per cent, pro- 
tein and an average of 3 per cent. fat. It is to be noted that when its com- 
position is compared with the old process, the oil percentage is less and the 
protein percentage greater; hence it has of recent years found many general 
applications. It is very discouraging for its advocates that the old linseed 
meal appears to be more digestible than the new. This fact may be counter- 
balanced by the difference in cost in some special cases. 



362 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Nitrogenous feeding stuffs. — Classification. 

A. By-products subsequent to the extraction of oil or starch. 

B. By-products from the manufacture of flour, such as wheat bran. 

C. Several kinds of seeds. 

D. Green and dried leguminous fodders. 

I^iitrition and exci'etion. It is through the blood that all nutri- 
tion of the body is affected, and when it does not circulate, complications are 
sure to follow. All transformations of the body are formed and renewed by 
the blood. In all these modifications, the real action of respiration must 
never be overlooked; consequently pure air is also a most important question, 
as without it the burning of the carbon is not satisfactorily accomplished, and 
the heat of the body not maintained. Tlie element carbon must also be fur- 
nished in sufficient quantities; this cannot be done through protein substances 
alone, but to them carbohydrates must be added, otherwise death is sure to 
follow. While water is an important question it need not, upon general 
principles, give much anxiety, because it may generally be had in sufficient 
quantities. 

Nutritive substances, as they first enter the blood, are not in a condition to 
be entirely assimilated; they must undergo certain changes. Protein sub- 
stances that at first do not coagulate, later, when acted upon by the various 
secretions of the stomach, become albumin and fibrin, both of which coagu- 
late. Fatty substances are no longer discernible; they are almost entirely dis- 
solved and completely combined M'ith alkalies as previously explained. The 
role of the fat in the blood varies as the occasion demands. 

Every motion of the body means a certain wear and tear, which is directly 
proportional to the eflx)rt. The worn out tissues are replaced by new ones 
through the intervention of the blood, due to the combined process of digestion 
and assimilation. If the animal is growing, allowance must be made, not only 
for waste, but also for new flesh and bones formed. 

The nutritive substances, after being absorbed from the intestinal canal, 
soon undergo changes owing to their combination with oxygen, the used por- 
tions being consequently thrown out in an oxydized condition. This and like 
interchanges represent the actual vital phenomenon that occurs when heat is 
evolved or flesh and fat formed. During circulation the oxygen of the air 
comes in contact with the carbon of the blood to form carbonic acid. The 
amount of gas formed and carbon consumed may be accurately determined- 
During the continuance of circulation, the globules themselves carry oxygen 
through the body. An interesting comparison has been made between the 
blood circulation of the body, and a river with its tributaries, upon which float 
boats moving in diflferent directions. On the one hand we have these small 
boats or globules chaiged with oxygen floating in albumin, on the other hand 
the corpuscles floating in the opposite direction carrying carbonic acid, tlie 
result of the combination of oxygen with the carbon. During sleep the 
exportation, so to speak, of carbonic acid lessens, but the importations of 
oxygen increase, under which circumstances there is a certain amount that is 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 363 

stored up to be subsequently used the next day. The amount of oxygen 
penetrating the blood is entirely independent of the breathing; but upon the 
volume needed for the combinations that follow, many factors have an impor- 
tant influence, such as the kind of food eaten, the composition of the blood, 
etc Evidently, when food consists mainly of protein substances, the number 
of blood corpuscles is increased. The dividing up of the compounds into 
simple forms then becomes more complicated, and the oxygen consumed is 
greater. Experiments by Henneberg upon oxen appear to demonstrate that 
during sleep they store up a certain amount of oxygen that is transformed into 
carbonic acid during work. Under these circumstances we know the amount 
of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon contained in the fodder, and the amount in 
excrement and the amount deposited in the body. It is possible to ascertain 
the percentage of each that was consumed in the formation of carbonic acid 
and water that was subsequently absorbed in the body. The percentage of 
oxygen taken from the air is determined by the use of the Pettenkofer 
apparatus described elsewhere. Evidently a certain equilibrium between 
night and day is, on the long run. established. It must be understood that in 
these transformations the nutritive elements must first pass through the 
tissues to enter the circulation and thus undergo a certain dissociation before 
the combination with oxygen can be complete. It necessarily follows that by 
reason of excessive work, more tissue is consumed. The oxygen demanded 
for its burning must also increase. Naturally when the wear and tear is 
greater than the repair, the animal gets thin. The reverse is also true, and 
upon this fact the fattening of an animal depends. In regard to this it 
might be pointed out that in feeding rations, frequent mistakes occur, as when 
a poor ration follows a rich one. the falling off in fat, etc., represents more 
money than the value of fodder saved. It takes very much less time to 
destroy than to build up. 

The repair of wastes in the formation of new cells is a very complicated 
question. The skin, nails, hair, etc. — in other words every part of the body — 
are being gradually renewed. This wear and tear is evidently veiy much 
greater with young growing animals than it is with such as are more fully 
grown. 

The development of the bony frame is most important, and as it is com- 
posed of saline princiijles, the fodder must contain those salts that are requisite 
to repair loss. Hay and cereals of all kinds fill the required conditions. Once 
the bones and nerves have attained their full development they undergo very 
little change. From what has just been said, the importance of phosphates in 
rations is evident. When an animal has attained its full development, it has 
a tendency to deposit fat, a condition much desired in the various methods 
of fattening. A pound of fat meat may bring twice the money upon the 
market that a pound of lean meat from another animal would bring. Several 
French experiments by Boussingault and others have demonstrated beyond 
cavil that carbohydrates are most important fat formers, and when fed in ex- 
cess of what is needed, they are deposited in the fat cells of the body. This 
subject is discussed in full in another chapter; however, for the present, we 



364 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

desire to call attention to sugar and its importance. This hydrocarbon is rap- 
idly burned during the process of j-espiration. The amount of sugar that 
enters the digestive canal during twentj'-four hours is very great, being about 
20 lbs. for a full-grown ox, yet the blood itself contains only a small percent- 
age of it. Nowhere does it appear to be deposited and its dissociation is 
extremely rapid as compared with the assimilation of other elements. In fact, 
carbohydrates in general are rapidly absorbed. The fatty substances of a fod- 
der help to sustain respiration and aid the production of animal heat; they 
form a sort of emulsion, combining with alkalies of the pancreatic fluid and 
bile. The fatt}^ oils when in excess in a fodder frequently produce a bad effect 
upon the animal's health. This fat formation is always limited. When starch 
is in excess in a ration, it is always found in tlie excrement. Fat may be 
formed from protein substances. Whatever be tlie source, the excess should 
undergo a complete oxidation, and the amount that has been deposited either 
as fat or in milk, depends upon several conditions too complicated to be con- 
sidered in this writing. An interesting fact that is difficult to explain is that 
fat deposited from albuminoids oxidizes more rapidly than the fat that had been 
previously deposited from other sources. We cannot pass unnoticed the action 
of glycogen, which may also be considered a carboliydrate. This element is 
found in the liver in quantities depending upon what the animal eats; its pro- 
perties are very like sugar, as regards its effect upon polarized light, but it has 
no action on a copper solution. This sugar appears to be constantly renewing 
itself, but the process is not known. Within what limits this glycogen is 
a reserve for the sugar needed by the body would be difficult to say. The car- 
bohydrates appear to play their most active parts during the last period of fat- 
tening. The direct action of the elements of this group is understood to a 
reasonable extent, but there are many facts relating to it that continue to re- 
main a mystery. It is unnceessary to enter into the various theories that 
attempt to show that glycogen has a protein origin, being held in reserve 
until needed. 

In all questions of nutrition, the nervous system takes a most active part, 
but what precise action foods have upon the nervous system continues to be 
open to conjecture. We do know, however, that certain foods are more ex- 
citing than others, this action varying in each special case; just as very nervous 
individuals are seldom fat, so are nervous animals most difficult to fatten. 
A problem of the future will be to discover some food that can, in a 
measure, overcome excessive nervousness. The question remains to be de- 
cided whether by proper care a new race could not be created in which the 
characteristics of the ancestor could be overcome; but as matters now exist, the 
complication, whatever it be, has a tendency to increase, and until diminished, 
the science of cattle feeding must suffer from the want of more accurate 
methods. The rational system is kindness and due consideration for the 
animal under special observation. It is interesting within a reasonable extent, 
to follow the various elements not yet assimilated which have been taken up 
by the blood; their separation is effected by special organs known as glands, 
all of these having special functions to fulfill. It is well not to confound the 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 365 

glands that excrete with the organs that secrete. For example, at certain 
pei'iod.'i at the end of gestation certain glands fornaing part of the udder ex- 
'crete a fluid called colostrum (rich in salts and albumin). This had pre- 
viously been a yellowish mucus, later was made up of a series of fat or milk 
globules, and changed its condition just previous to the birth of the progeny. 
The fat globules do not hold together, and later, when the actual milk has 
been secreted, the colostrum globules disappear to be replaced by regular milk 
globules, surrounded by a tliin covering of casein, that are very numerous 
until the calf is weaned. All milk, whatever be its source, contains enough 
nutrients to sustain life. 

The evaporation from the body or perspiration is one of the most important 
forms of excretion, and is more complicated than many suppose. Besides 
watery vapor, carbonic acid, acetic and lactic acids, certain special organic 
and inorganic substances are present, sodic chlorid, phosphates, etc., being 
found among the latter. The oily matter thrown ofl' through the skin is ex- 
creted by special glands. In a full-grown ox, this excretion attains consider- 
able proportions. Experiments of Henneberg and Hohmann show that this 
water evaporation through lungs and skin can reach 22 pounds per diem. 
During this excretion very little nitrogen escapes in the same direction. On 
the other hand, Grouven shows that considerable ammonia is thrown off. 
The carbon escapes mainly through the lungs, but much is also excreted 
through the skin in the form of carbonic acid, as previously mentioned. The 
hydrogen combining with oxygen is eliminated mainly in the form of water. 
The most important excretion of the body is done by the kidneys through 
which the blood passes. In these the nitrogenous substances formed by the 
decomposition of the albumin of the body are removed. The secretions from 
the kidneys are received in the bladder before being expelled from the body. 
The most important element in the urine of cattle is urea, a substance very 
rich in nitrogen, also hippuric acid which corresponds to uric acid in carnivor- 
ous animals, the inorganic substances being alkaline bi-carbonates. Phos- 
phoric acid appears to be absent from the urine of cattle. Urea is rapidly 
eliminated from the blood in a healthly animal under which circumstances it 
is not deposited. When the deposit does occur, there is something faulty in 
the working of the organs, and complications, such as rheumatic gout, are sure 
to follow. In a good healthy full-grown animal the amount of urea thrown 
off per diem attains about one pound in weight. 

Urea crystallizes easily and is soluble in water. During the phenomenon 
of osmosis, these crystals pass in and out with great ease. Henneberg says 
that the 33.5 parts of nitrogen contained in 100 parts of anhydious albumin 
may be separated as urea. The remaining albumin combines with 12.3 parts 
water to form 51 .4 parts fat and 27.4 parts carbonic acid. The amount of urine 
excreted varies very much with the animal and the kind of food used, some 
individuals having greater power of assimilation than others. Upon general 
principles, it may be admitted that the richer the fodder is in protein sub- 
stances, the greater will be the quantity of nitrogen in the urine. Protein 
substances when fed in excess of actual requirements should be eliminated 



366 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

entirely, but this is seldom the case. In fact, as previously explained, the 
theory of cattle feeding depends largely upon the subject of excretion, and the 
influence of a ration upon an animal may be thus determined to a nicety. 
Great care should be taken to collect every drop of urine, as numerous im- 
portant experiments demonstrate that all the nitrogen that has been separated 
from the albuminoids during the process of assimilation is found in this ex- 
cretion. In such experiments, there is always a certain loss of nitrogen that 
is difficult to account for; it is very small, and is, in most cases, supposed to 
be due to faulty methods of analysis. Consequently every effort should be 
made to absorb the urine by a suitable amount of straw. What has just been 
said applies not only to cases where the excrement is to be analyzed, but also 
when it is to be used as a fertilizer. 

We may conclude that a rich fodder offers a double advantage to the farmer. 
On the one hand there is a gain in flesh, and on the other the quality of 
manure obtained is better. An interesting calculation might be made show- 
ing that it is not alwaj^s cheaper to purchase manure than fodder. It has 
time and again been demonstrated that it is possible to purchase feeding stuffs 
and combine them in a suitable ration, so as to feed for maintenance, and not 
obtain an increase in weight but yet obtain manure as cheap as if purchased 
direct from a neighboring farm. Consequently, no well organized farm should 
be without a certain number of cattle, whatever be the advantage of a chemical 
fertilizer; for there is always a factor, small it is true, but yet felt after a term, 
that chemical fertilizers do not furnish. When it is a question of beet pulp 
feeding, this is especially true; the elements that are deficient may be supplied 
at a nominal cost. 

ISTitrates. Very little attention need be given to nitrates, as they are 
considered to be without nutritive value. 

Js'iti'Ogen-free extract. Contains starch, sugar, gums, pentosane, 
etc. , after deducting from the total dry matter the ether free extract, crude 
fibre and ash. If to the nitrogen-free extract we add the crude fibre, we obtain 
what is generally termed carbohydrates. There is a great difference in the 
nitrogen-free extract of different fodders. For example, in rye ffour it is 70 
per cent., while in certain corn roughage it is only 12 per cent. Experiments 
appear to prove that all the nitrogen-free extract, that may be actually 
digested, has about the composition of starch; consequently the non-nitrogenous 
substances, with the exception of fat, may be considered as carbohydrates. A 
portion of the nitrogen-free extract is not digested. An important point to be 
noticed is that the amount of crude fibre digested is nearly equal to the amount 
of nitrogen-free extract that is not assimilated. This principle must not be 
accepted to the letter; but it enables one to form an excellent idea of the 
digestibility of a fodder. Experiments appear to sbow that the undigested 
nitrogen-free extract has more carbon in its composition than carbohydrates, 
and is said to have the same as lignin. 

Non-nitrogenous. The most important of the non-nitrogenous 
nuti'ients of which fodders consist are the carbohydrates, fat and cellulose. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 367 

iN^on-sugai'. Any feeding substance containing sugar has combined 
with it other constituents which are, in general, termed non-sugar. 

Nutritive ratio. This expression is very practical. In its proper 
sense it is intended to convey the ratio between digestible protein in any feed- 
ing stuff and the amount of digestible carbohydrates and ether extract. This 
ether extract is multiplied by 2.4. (In the United States there is great need 
of some uniformity in tlie use of this factor, as in some cases it is 2.2 to 2.25 
and in others as high as 2.5; the latter is an excess and the former too small.) 
If we consider red clover hay, for example, there will be, for one hundred 
pounds of this fodder, 6.8 lbs. protein digestible, 35.8 lbs. carbohydrates and 
1.7 lb. of ether extract. The ratio is calculated as follows: 

1.7 X 2.4 = 4.08. The total carbohydrates then are: 35.8 + 4.C8 = 39.88. 

Nutritive ratio = ?il^ = 5.8 or 1:5' 8. 

6.8 

Oil meal. In most countries of Continental Europe the various after- 
products from oil mills are known as oil cakes. In the United States the pro- 
duct is ground to a meal, hence the name oil meal. It oflers great help for 
feeding in general; but the quantity used should be restricted. 

Oil process linseed meal. The "oil cake," as it was once called, 
has now practically become almost obsolete. The cakes containing 15 per 
cent, oil were of comparatively small dimension and easy to handle. In con- 
sequence of the increased pressure to which the residuum was submitted, the 
oil percentage diminished, and now the name has been changed to "old oil- 
seed process." Tlie original oil cake in many countries continues to hold its 
own. In the United States it renders considerable service in compounding 
rations for horses. Not more than two pounds per diem should be fed. It 
offers in special cases an advantage as a laxative. The old process product 
contains a protein percentage that may vary from 26 to 38.5 per cent., and an 
average of only 8 per cent. fat. 

Omasom. This is the third stomach of ruminants. 

Organic matter. When feeds are burned the organic matter dis- 
appears. 

Osmotic action. Tliat which pertains to osmosis. 

Osmose. When crystalline substances are in solution, and are placed in 
porous recejjtacles, they pass through, leaving the particles that are non- 
crystallizable, or colloids. 

Oxalic acid. This acid is found in the juice of numerous plants as 
potassium or calcic salt; it is mainly the outcome of the oxidation of various 
substances. It may be prepared by the simple action of nitric acid upon sugar. 

Panncll. The largest division of the stomach of ruminants is called the 
paunch or first stomach. 



368 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

Pea meal comes under the head of the legumes. Its use is not very gen- 
eral. It may contain 20 per cent, protein and an average of 15 per cent. fat. 
Combined with roots, it is frequently used in feeding, and then offers special 
advantages. It excels all split peas. 

Peetic substances. The composition of these products is very var- 
iable. They are found in beets and other roots in the form of pectose. "When 
boiled this becomes pectin, and if the heating continues, there is formed 
peetic acid, etc., which acid is insoluble in boiling water; when the boiling is 
continued, there is formed a metapectic acid. As these simple and complex 
bodies are digestible, they play important roles in animal feeding. Just what 
relation exists between them and carbohydrates remains to be demonstrated; 
they differ from carbohydrates in their percentage of oxygen. 

Pentosanes are found in considerable quantities in plants. The pen- 
toses, the outcome of pentosanes, are hydrocarbons. 

Peptones. Constituents found in sugar beets as well as in other roots, 
etc., and are also formed from protein dui'ing the function of digestion. It 
remains to be demonstrated just what their role is, and, consequently, what 
advantage there is in having them in fodder. 

PllOSpliates. Phosphoric acid combines with alkalies to form phosphates. 

PtlOSpllOi'ie acid. In many fodders pliosphoric acid is very deficient, 
and should be added in one form or another. The percentage of this chemical 
in plants varies very considerably. In beets and residuum cossettes, this acid 
may frequently be found in sufficient quantity to meet the demands of the bony 
tissues. 

Plant foods. Plants, during their growth, take up from the soil cer- 
tain elements, such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc., which are the 
foods upon which their development largely depends. 

Protein. Represents a compound consisting mainly of nitrogen. Just 
how it is formed in plants is explained by the action of nitric acid and sulphur 
upon the protoplasms of the cells of plants. After a certain period, the 
protein appears to leave a certain portion of the cellular tissue and centers 
itself in the seed and mainly in the germ. The protein compounds may be 
divided into two groups, albuminoids and amides; they constitute the most 
important elements in feeding, and therefore should be the most expensive. 
The transformation that these protein constituents undergo during assimilation 
consists in the formation of muscles, bones, skin, etc., which action may be 
for the purpose of replacing waste, or to help build up and increase tissue. 
The mode of determining the percentage of protein in any feeding stuff, is too 
complicated for the present writing. Suffice it to say that after the nitrogen 
has been estimated, the amount is multiplied by 6.25, and this, for all practi- 
cal purposes, represents the protein. The amount of protein in feeds varies 
considerably; 100 lbs. of clover hay contain 12 lbs. protein, while sunflower- 
seed cake contains per 100 pounds nearly 3'6 lbs. protein. Between these two 
there is a long series of fodders. Upon general principles, it may be admitted 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 369 

that nitrogenous substances during the process of assimilation in the body are 
transformed into soluble peptones, which find their way into the blood. The 
protein energy of one gram of this substance is 4.1 calories or 6.3 foot tons. 
Feeding experiments with protein appear to show that when used alone it 
tends to increase the consumption of the protein of the body, and the excess 
does not appear to help the formation of flesh. This question is still open to 
discussion. Some well conducted experiments appear to show that when the 
ration used is a wide nutritive one, the results obtained are more satisfactory; 
hence the best mode appears to be to combine the protein required with con- 
siderable carbohydrates. Various substances have important influences on 
protein consumption. It is now admitted that amides contained in plants can 
justly claim to be nutrients, and are oxidized just as other feeds are; for ex- 
ample, asparagin when fed in certain quantities will result in a gain of protein 
even when forming part of a ration poor in protein. Under these circum- 
stances it becomes a helper in the formation of tissue. Later experiments show 
that amides may also take the place, within reasonable limits, of albuminoids. 

Without doubt sodic chlorid or salt has an important influence on protein 
consumption; the general circulation of the blood being stimulated through 
this saline action, there necessarily follow greater wear and tear, and conse- 
quently a demand upon the existing protein. A fact not to be forgotten is that 
salt increases the working of the kidneys, and acts in a measure as a diuretic. 
The flow of urine being greater, there follows a certain thirst, and if this can- 
not be satisfied, the requisite water will be drawn from the body, under which 
circumstances tliere is a drain on the tissues; hence the desirability in such 
cases of considerable water for drinking purposes. 

Many experiments tend to show that the glycogen in the liver derives its 
source mainly from protein, that it is thus stored up and used when required. 
There are numerous other theories of the same kind. 

Abstinence from food demands that the body meat (muscle), shall be called 
upon, and under these circumstances there follows a considerable daily decrease 
of protein. Voit's experiments show that protein exists in two forms in the 
body, viz., the organized protein and the movable protein, but such theories 
have since been refuted. The bulk of existing experiments appears to show 
that they are truly scientific in the proper sense of the word. The organized 
protein undergoes a change very slowly, while the movable protein is rapidly 
decomposed into its albuminoids, and must be replaced by the protein contained 
in the fodder In feeding fodders to sheep, experience seems to show that 
there is every advantage in using considerable protein to obtain the best fatten- 
ing; it tends to increase the amount of nutrients digested. Protein also plays 
a most important role in milk production, in helping the growth of the cells 
in the milk glands, as they consist mainly of protein. The impoj'tauce of this 
element in the food is very readily understood; furthermore, the greatest yield 
in milk in most cases is in direct ratio with the supply of protein. This sub- 
stance tends to increase the percentage of solid matter in milk. In certain 
special cases, if the food is especially palatable to a cow, the fiow of milk may 
increase without additional protein, but there is then danger of the animal 



370 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

drawing upon its reserve force, which always means a considerable reduction 
in weight, and a reaction is then to be dreaded. 

Potassic salts. Fodders in general contain these salts in sufficient 
quantities; hence they need not be added to the ration. 

Pressed cossettes. After the beet slices have been sufficiently ex- 
hausted of their sugar in the diffusion battery, they are emptied from the 
bottom of the diifusors, and as they contain an excess of water, which would 
render their handling most difficult, this is very considerably eliminated by 
running the residuum through special presses, known as cossette presses. 

Proteids. This is a general term given to the albumin and albuminoids 
entering the composition of feeds or the organism. There are many sub- 
divisions of these substances, such as egg albumin, serum albumin, etc. 

Pulps is another name for diffusion residuum cossettes. The term is very 
generally used, and may be accepted. However, a pulp obtained from beets 
exists only in beet distilleries, where, after fermentation, the final residuum is 
an actual pulp. When hydraulic pressing was in vogue, the beet residuum 
was a pulp in the true sense of the word, but now the final product, after leav- 
ing the presses, has a certain tenacity, and is not soft and pulp-like. 

Radiation. The emission of rays of light or heat; to shine. 

Ration. The daily allowance of food for an animal must be made up of 
nitrogenous, non-nitrogenous and mineral substances. While most fodders, 
either dry or green, contain these in varied proportions, they seldom, when 
considered alone, constitute what might be termed a complete food, meeting 
the daily requisites. In order to maintain an animal in a good healthy con- 
dition, several fodders must always be combined to make up the ration. 
Practical experience shows what these combinations should be. 

Reeticuliini. This is the second stomach of ruminants. 

Rennet or Abomasom. This is the fourth stomach of ruminants, in 
which take place the processes relating to digestion. 

Residunni. After an operation having in view the extraction of one 
substance from another, there remains a residuum. In the extraction of sugar 
from beet slices, there remain the cossettes, which are known as residuum 
cossettes. There are various other residuums left in beet sugar factories, such 
as filter press residuums, also termed filter press scums, and there is also the 
water residuum from various appliances. 

Roughage is the coarse portions of a ration, such as hay, corn, fodder, 
silage, straw, etc. 

Ruminants. The animals that chew a cud are known as ruminants. 
The stomachs of the leading members of the group have four separate divisions. 

Saliva is a secretion from the glands of the mouth. It not only moistens 
foods, but in an important measure helps in the subsequent digestion. 

Saccharose is another name for cane sugar. 



DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 371 

Scums. During the filtration of carbonated beet juices there remain, 
upon the fihering cloths deposits called scums, which consist not only of car- 
bonate of lime, but also of the coagulated albuminoids that rise to the surface 
of'saccharine juices during their heating and carbonation. 

Seniin is a fluid, yellow in color, which separates from blood after the 
fibrin has coagulated. 

Silos. The pit or combination by means of which feeds are kept during 
the winter months. They may be above or beneath the surface. Beets and 
residuum cossettes, after being arranged in piles, are covered with earth and 
straw. 

Sodic dilorid is another name for common table salt; it is also called 
ciilorid of sodium. 

Soui* cossettes are those cossettes that have been siloed and have 
imdergone a partial fermentation. Their flavor is xerj much more acceptable 
to live stock than is either the fresh or dried residuum. 

Stalks of beet seed. During the second year of the beet's develop- 
ment, it throws up stalks upon which the seeds are formed; these stalks and 
old seed are frequently used for feeding purposes. 

Starch. This product is found in considerable quantities in all vege- 
tables. One of its essential properties is that when brought in contact with 
iodin, it becomes blue. It may be changed to dextrin by boiling with acids, 
and when placed in the mouth or in the stomach, it is changed into sugar. It 
plays a very important I'ole in the non-nitrogenous substances, and is very 
readily digested. Its general composition is nearly that of cellulose. Starch 
swells in boiling water. The product exists in plants in the most varied form. 
When heated it may be changed to dextrin. 

StimiTlantS. In most cases stimulants are of the first importance in 
cattle feeding. When mentioning stimulants, we refer to those substances 
that have for their object the increase of appetite. The importance of salt 
was for many years doubted, but we believe that it is now accepted by most 
experts. It stimulates the digestive glands to secrete activel_y and thereby' 
renders excellent service. Pleasant and comfortable surroundings has in all 
cases a stimulating effect not to be overlooked, and the .same may be said of 
kind treatment. A farmer who brutalizes his animals is in the long run the 
loser; the irritating efl^ect produced by his presence has anything but a stimu- 
lating eflTect upon the cattle under his care. It frequently happens that the 
entire nervous .system is affected by the regular feeding of stimulants that the 
animal relishes and looks towards eating at regular hours. Tkl any products 
have been recommended and used, but most of them are too expensive to have 
any practical value. 

Sucrose. Cane sugar is frequently called sucrose; it is made up of 12 
parts carbon, 22 parts hydrogen, and 11 parts oxygen, and has for its formula 
Ci-^HojOn; it differs from glucose by only one equivalent of water, water being 
expressed by H.^0; that of glucose then is CjjIIj^Oij. If on the other hand, 



372 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 

HjO is removed from cane sugar, we have starch. These all come under the 
one general head of carbohydrates. 

Sugars. Fodders contain sugar in various forms. Whether from the 
sugar cane or the sugar beet, it comes under the caption of cane sugar. In 
certain cases when milk is used, one has milk sugar, and grape and fruit sugars 
are also to be considered in certain special feeding experiments. Whatever 
be the kind or variety of sugar, it always, upon general principles, has an im- 
portant resemblance to cane sugar. Sugars are soluble in water, hence they 
possess great facilities for being digested, and consequently assimilated. 

Sugar in most plants diminishes as they approacli maturity, while during the 
first year, at least for sugar beets, the reverse is the case, when the roots have 
not been properly siloed. The sugar percentage in beets depends upon their 
variety, method of cultivation, soil and fertilizer — when nitric fertilizers are 
used in excess, the sugar percentage is low. Beets that grow above ground 
contain less sugar than such as grow well beneath the surface; among them may 
be mentioned mangels, etc. , frequently cultivated for stock feed. Upon gen- 
eral principles it may be admitted that fodders containing only a small per- 
centage of sugar are eaten with avidity. It may be admitted that sugar tends 
to increase the flow of milk, gives strength to the body, and also helps to in- 
crease the formation of fat. During digestion all sugars are transformed into 
glucose. 

Wlieat l)rau. This residuum contains very little flour; it renders con- 
sidei'able service for mixing with pulp lodders, and is very extensively used 
for dairying purposes. It contains about 15.5 per cent, nitrogen. 

Wlieat iniddling'S are supposed to be the coverings of wheat following 
the hulls, and include colored flours; in reality there is always considerable 
flour combined. This is not an advantage in cattle feeding, for various reasons. 

Wheat residuums are numerous: wheat feed, ship stuff", flour feed, 
wheat shorts. They are frequently combinations of several feeding stuffs, such 
as oats, corn, etc. Their composition is most variable; it is better to have 
them analyzed before using. 

Wide I'atio means that the ratio existing between the protein and the 
carbohydrates and ether extract combined is excessive. For oat straw it is 
1 :33, which may be considered as an excellent example of a wide ratio. 



INDEX, 



A BOM A SON or rennet, 370 
Acidity, 331 
Acidulated beet leaves, 103. 104 
Ahrens, ration proposed by, for horned 

cattle, 150 
Air, amount of, required, 31 
Albumin, 331 

effect of, on milk, 29 
production of muscular energy 
by, 54 
Albuminoids, 9. 331 
consumption of, 52 
determination of the nitrogen of 
the. 298, 299 
Alcohol, utilization of molasses for the 

manufacture of, 296 
Alfalfa, digestible nutrients of, 319, 

322 
Alimentary canal, 331 
Alkali, 331 
Alkaline, 331 
Alkaloids, 331 
Allen, Mr., on beet pulp feeding, 222 

remarks of. on silos. 223 
Alvarado, system of surface storing of 

beet cossettes at, 167, 168 
American cows, requirements of, as 

compared with European. 40, 41 
Ames, Neb., experience of, 222-226 
Amides, content of, in soured beet 
cossettes, 162 
nutritive value of, 162 
varied opinions respecting the 
value of. 236, 237 
Amids. 331, 332 
Andouard and Vezaunay, experiments 

of, 148 
Anhydrous, definition of, 332 
Animal fattening, problem of, 87, 88 
ration, pulp combination in the, 
7,8 
Animal's body, constituents of 

336-340 
Animals, carbonic acid thrown 
by, 52 
effect of sugar on, 309 



the. 



out 



Animals, farm, table for computing 
rations for, 319-330 
feeding of, with blood-molasses, 

285' 
increase in weight of, by feeding 
dried cossettes and molasses, 260 
influence of molasses on the organ- 
ism of, 248 
stall-fed, rations for. 6, 7 
to be fattened, bleeding of, 11 
varying molasses rations for, 253 
working, raticm for, 6 

theoretical considerations of 
feeding, 52-57 
Apple pomace, digestible nutrients of, 

329,330 
Armsbv, Prof , on sugar beet feeding, 

80,81 
Ash, 332 

digestibility of, 353 
estimation of, 299 
Asparagin, 332 
Assimilation, 332 

Attigny sugar factory. France, molas- 
ses forage made at the, 290-292 
Austro-Hungary, increasing popular- 
ity of molasses feeding in, 233, 234 

BACTERIA, 35 
definition of. 332 
Barley and peas, digestible nutrients 
■ of, 319 

digestible nutrients of. 323, 324 
Beet cossettes and the wool, 47 

filling silos with, 159, 160 
in cattle feeding, 142 
leaf drying, 104, 105 

loss of oxalic acid in, 108 
feeding, 110, 111 

conclusions respecting, 

114, 125 
early, and mistakes made 

in, 96 
objections to. 111, 112 
fodder, soft, 102 
keeping. 97, 98 



(373) 



374 



INDEX. 



Beet leaf keeping, modes of, 107 
stripping, 95. 96 
washing, 102. 103 
• looses in, 102, 103 
leaves and other substances in 
silo, 100, 101 
and tops, average crop of, 96 
harvesting the crop of, 

96. 97 
money value of , 116,117 
acidulated, 103. 104 
Buttner and Meyer drver for. 

105. 107 
compressing of. in siloes, 98 
Crumner dryer for. 105 
decomposition of sugar in, 108 
desiccation of, 1 10 
faulty siloing of. 100 
Grouven's experiments in 

siloing. 100 
saline elements in, 115 
siloed, analysis of. 99 

composition of, 98 
siloing of. in Germany, 101 
transformation of, in silos, 

and losses, 99, 100 
Wusterhagen dryer for, 107- 
109 
mangel, digestible nutrients of, 

320 
molasses, digestible nutrients of, 

329 
products, comparative nutritive 
values of rations varied by 
the addition of, 203 
different, comparative anal- 
yses of milk, when fed, 203 
pulp disease, 144. 145 

feeding of. with a view of 

producing milk and 

butter. 147,148 

synopsis of experiments in, 

147, 148 

mixing common salt with, 

147 
utilization, impulse by. to 
sheep raising in the U.S. .45 
value of. on dairy farms, 147 
pulps, combination of common 
salt with. 144. 145 
dangers of feeding, 143, 144 
how to feed. 143 
water in, 149, 156 
relation of, to leaf composition, 

115, 116 
residuum, analysis of, before and 
after preparing, 124 



Beet residuum, excess of water in, 121 

feeding and fattening of 

steers with, in Western 

States. 14 

fresh and siloed, feeding of, 

118-172 
manner of using, 119 
money advantages of, 19 
pulp, objections to the use of, 

118, 119 
sugar left in. 121 
seed, stalks of, 371 

stalks and seed, feeding with, 
117 
slices, influence of lime upon the 

cellular texture of, 175 
special advantage offered by the, 7 
-steaming pits. Leduc's. 66-68 
sugar, advantages and disadvan- 
tages of. 110 
digestible nutrients of, 320, 

321 
question of the utilization of 
the over-production of, 312, 
313 
tops, value of, 220, 221 
Beets and mangels compared, 70-74 

plant food taken up by, 73 
potatoes. comparison between, 

88-90 
pulp compared. 69, 70 
silage, comparison as to the 

cost of feeding with. 87 
Tankard, comparative in- 
crease in weight of 
sheep fed with, 72 
compared. 71 
cost of, per acre, 87 
feeding of, to cattle, 64-117 

cows, and sheep, ex- 
periments in, in 
the United States, 
79-93 
field, and silage relative values of, 
in the production of milk, 83-88 
large and small, in cattle feeding, 

78.79 
mangels and silage, comparative 

feeding value of. for cows, 92 
preparation of, before feeding, 65 
ration with and without, average 
daily vield of milk produced 
by. 86" 
results obtained by feeding a shoi't- 
horn cow and a Holstein heifer 
on, 89 
Bergreen press, 131-134 



IKDEX. 



375 



Berthonval, France, experiments made 

at, 249, 250 
Betain, 332 

Blood, amount of glucose that dis- 
appears in tlie, 302 
composition of, 280 
destruction of sugar in the, 301, 

302 
elimination of the fibrin of the. 

283, 284 
molasses combinations, 280 

analyses of. 283.284 
method of prepar- 
ing, 282 
possibilities of, 281 
feeding animals in general 
with, 285 
cows with, 284 
horses with. 284, 285 ' 
pigs with, 284. 285 
fodder, difficulties in keeping. 
286, 287 
preparation of, on the 
farm, 28H 
general rations of. 286 
varied absorbents for, 282, 283 
Bolus, 333 

Bran and molasses combination, 270. 
superiority of peat and 
molasses to, 262 
comparison of, witli peat, 270 
Brewers' grains, 333 

and molasses. 277, 278 
digestible nutrients of. 327 
Brunehaut. analysis of fresh and dried 

cossettes by. 188 
Buckwheat bran, digestible nutrients 
of, 326 
digestible nutrients of, 324 
middlings, digestible nutrients of, 
326 
Bulls and heifers, experimental sugar 
rations for. 313, 314 
ration for, 151 
Butter and milk, feeding with tlie view 
of producing, 147, 148 
influence of feeds upon, 
2f)-28 
characteristic odors of, due to 

siloed pulp feeding, 158 
flavor of, 26, 27 

production, feeding with the view 
to. 34 
Buttermilk, digestible nutrients of, 330 
Buttner and Meyer dryer, 181-187 

for beet leaves, 
105-107 



Bv-products, digestible nutrients of, 
'326-328 

CABBACjE, digestible nutrients of, 
328, 329 
Calcic carbonate. 333 

phosphate. 333 
Calculation of rations for milch cows. 

38-45 
California dairy cows, compositions of 
rations fed to, 42 
experiment station, conclusions of 

the, 219-221 
importance of the question of feed- 
ing cossettes to cattle in, 215 
Calffeedfng. 25. 26 

most natural conditions for the, 15 
Calorie, definition of, 333 
Calves, feeding sugar to, 310. 311 

Soxhlet's experiments upon, 15 
Calving cow, needs of ihe, 25 
Carbohydrates, 9, 333 

digestibility of, 346-348 
heat obtained from the, 53 
influence of, on the formation of 
fat. 10-12 
Carbon, 333 
Carbonatation. 333 
Carbonate of lime, 333 
Carbonates, definition of, 333 
Cai-bonic acid. 333 

amount of, thrown out by 
animals, 52 
Carbonize, definition of, 333 
Carnivorous, definition of, 333 
Carrot, digestible nutrients of, 321 
Casein. 29, 333 

Cattle and voung steers, feeding and 
fattening, 9-21 
digestion of, 353-356 
experiments in feeding, with dif- 
fusion pulp, 152 
fattening, successful, requisites 

for. 17, 18 
feed, green corn fodder vs. sugar 

beets for, 76-78 
feeding, beet cossettes in, 142 
beets to, 64-1.17 
cossettes, fresh and dried, 
mixed with molasses for, 
258, 259 
former modes of, 1, 2 
general consideiations on, 1-8 
in hot climates, argument ad- 
vanced relative to, 306 
large and small beets in, 78, 
79 



376 



I^'DEX. 



Cattle feeding, of sugar to, in the early 
part of last century, 303-309 
of, with beet leaves, 116 

sugar beets and resi- 
duum cossetfes. early 
prejudice in the 
United States against, 
210-231 
peat-molasses to. 267 
present modes of, 2 
fodder, sugar beets more pi'ofitable 

than clover hay for, 79 
horned, ration for. 150 
modes of feeding molasses to, 254 
practical suggestions in early dis- 
cussions on feeding of, with 
sugar, 306-309 
water required for, 35, 36 
Cellular tissue, 333 
Cellulose, 333, 334 

determination of, 293 
role of, 4 
Centigrade degrees, 334 
Cereal wastes, 334 
Chauveau's theory of the destruction 

of sugar in the blood, 301, 302 
Chino, earlv experiments at, 215-217 
Chlorids, 334 
Chlorophvl, 334 
Chyle, 334 

Clover and mixed grasses, digestible 
nutrients of, 321 
digestibility of crude cellulose in, 

351 
hay, sugar beets more pi'ofitable 

for cattle feeding than, 79 
red, digestible nutrients of, 319 
silage and corn silage vs. sugar 
beets, 82, 83 
Clovers. 334 

Coagulate, definition of, 334 
Cob meal, advantages of, 26 
Coefficient of digestibility and nutri- 
tive relations, 334- 
336 
of protein, 346 
Coefficients of digestibility for fodder 

components, 342 
Colorado, experiments in, 230 
Coloring and volatile substances, 336 
Commercial value of fodders. 61-63 
Comparative experiments, 69-79 
Concentrates, 336 

combination of, with roughage, 22 
Cone cosette press, 129-131 

presses, daily delivery of. 131 
Cooking or steaming of fodders, 65-68 



Co-operative methods, 38 
Corn and cob meal, 340 

digestible nutrients of, 
324 325 
cost of siloing one acre of. 87 
digestible nutrients of, 323 
fodder, digestible nutrients of, 322 
germs and molasses, comparison 

of, with corn feeding, 269 
meal, advantages of, 16 
silage and clover silage vs. sugar 
beets. 82, 83 
and roots for milch cows, 

comparison of. 81, 82 
digestible nutrients of, 320 
stover, digestible nutrients of, 322 
Cornell University, experiments at 

the 92, 93 
Corpuscles, definition of. 340 
Cossette dryer, formula for calculating 
the efficiency of a, 187 
price for a, 173 
drying in Micliigan, apparatus 
for, 228, 229 
principal promoters of, 174 
feeding, conclusions as to dangers 
of, 145-147 
economy of, 93 
excessive, 149 
successful, 33 
or pulp contracts, 138, 139 
presses, 122 

care needed during, 136 
pressing, facilitation of, by 

heat, 136 
modes for facilitating, 136- 
138 
utilization on a co-operative basis, 
38 
Cossettes, acid reaction of, 161 

addition of lime or phosphoric 

acid to, 141, 142 
as food for game. 156 

man, 155, 156 
beneficial effects of, upon horses, 

208, 209 
Bergreen press for, 131-134 
changes in, when exposed to the 

air, 141 
chemical changes in, during pro- 
longed siloing, 164 
cone press for. 129-131 
continued feeding with, 148 
conveyance of, to farm, 140 
decomposed or mildewed, 145 
definition of, 119 
difi'usion, composition of, 120, 121 



INDEX. 



377 



Cossettes, digestibility of , 155. 199, 200 
nitrogenous s u b - 
stances of, 165 
dried, actual economy of, 209 

advantages of, in feeding, 194 
handling, 197 
and hay, comparative analysis 
of, 192 
molasses, analyses of 
combinations of, 
260 
mixture of, 259,260 
superiority of, to 
pressed cossettes 
and molasses. 260 
average composition of, 191 
profit from the use of, 
208 
change in, during keeping, 

198,199 
conservation of, 198 
mineral substances in, 197, 

198 
more hvgienic than the 

siloed,' 196, 197 
objections to using, 173, 174 
precautions in feeding, 200- 

202 
quantity of, to be fed, 202 
residuum, 173^209 
dripping and straining of, 121, 122 
drying of, by waste gases, 176 
early appreciation of the value of, 
118 
chemical changes in, during 
siloing, 163 
excessive pressure of, 122 
experiments in feeding different 

kinds of, 202-208 
feeding scrub cattle with, 8 

value of, 141 
filling silos with, 159, 160 
fresh and dried, analysis of, 188 
mixed with molasses 
for cattle feeding, 
258. 259 
dried and siloed, relative 

digestibility of, 199 
or dried, composition of milk 
from cows fed on, 202 
frozen , feeding of, 150 
in cattle feeding, 142 
Klusemann press for, 124-127 
lactic fermentation of. 161, 162 
Lallouette press for, 134—136 
liming of. before drying, 175 
limit of pressing of, 174, 175 



Cossettes, losses in, during pressing, 
123, 124 _ 
mixing of lime with, 138 

with an antiseptic, 167 
lime or alkaline 

salts, 137 
other fodders, 152, 

153 
sti*aw, 166 
pressed, 370 
Selwig and Lange press for, 127- 

129 
.siloed and dried, comparison be- 
tween, 192-.194 
siloing of, 156-172 
silos for reducing, 156-159 
sour, 371 

diseases due to, 145 
soured, increase in milk produc- 
tion by. 154 
steam drying of, 189-191 
surface soiling of, 167-171 
temperature of, in being dried, 184 
transformation of, during siloing, 
160-167 
the nitrogenous 
substances of, 
162 
utilization of lost heat for drying, 

177, 178 
value of, 139, 140 
what feeding of, means in Ger- 
many, 156 
Cotton seed meal, 340 

advantages of, 26 
digestible nutrients of, 
328 
Cow, breed and kind of, 32 
calving, needs of the, 25 
dairying based on maternity of 

the, 23 
ease and comfort for the, 32 
secondary importance of the, 1 
yield of milk from a, 23 
Cows, American, requirements of, as 
compared with European, 40, 41 
and sheep, experiments in feed- 
ing beets to, in the United 
States, 79-93 
oxen, working. 56, 57 
comparative feeding value of 
silage, beets and mangels for, 92 
constant attention to, 32 
experimental i-ation fed to, 205, 206 
experiments in feeding of, with 
beet leaves, 115 
upon, 69, 70 



378 



INDEX, 



Cows, feeding of, 33-38 

with blood-irtolasses, 284 

importance of regular feeding of, & 

influence of water in ration on. 
milk and weight of, 196. 

kind treatment of, 32^ 33 

nutritive ratio for, 30 

pregnant, misearriaige af, 24T 

rations for, 209 

trial of, 32 
Crude fibre,, 340 

Crumner dryer for beet leaves, 105 
Cubic meter, 341 

DAIRY cows,. California, composi- 
tions of rations fed to, 42 
composition of one hun- 
dred rations for, 40 
compositions of supposi- 
tious rations for,. 43,. 44 
farms, value of beet pulp on,. 147 
mistake in starting a,. 38 
Dairying based on maternity of the 
cow, 23 
successful, essentials for,. 31-33 
Defecation, 341 

Definitions and technical considera- 
tions, 331-372 
Desiccation, 341 

DiflTusion battery, preparation of mo- 
lasses cossettes in, 259 
eossettes, composition of, 120, 121 

water in, 149 
definition of, 356 
hot, facilitation of pressing fey, 

175, 176 
pulp, experiments in feeding 
with, 152 
utilization, Americaji exper- 
ience in,. 210 
what it consists in,. 119, 120 
DifFusors, Pfeiffer's compressed air 

mode for employing the, 176 
Digestibility, 341-353 

and nutritive relations, coefiicient 

of, 334-336 
coefiicient of,. 263 
factars governing, 341-344 
of ash, 353 

of carbohydi-ates, 346-348 
of crude cellulose in clover, 351 

protein, 345, 346 
of fatty substances, 348,. 319. 
of fibre, 349, 352 
of nitrogen-free extract as- deter- 
mined by water ex- 
traction, 332 



Digestibility of nitrogen-free extract, 
crude fibre and fat, relation 
between, 351 
o.f phosphoric acid, 352, 353 
of salt, 353 

varying, of coarse fodder when 
fed with roots, 348 
Digestion, 353-356 

influence of concentrated feeds 
upon, 344, 345 
Digestive nutrients in stated amounts 
of the more conuaon feeding stuffs, 
319-330 
Dogs, experiments upon, 12 
Dried cossettes, 356 

residuum cossettes,, 173-209 
Dripping and straining of cossettes, 

121, 122 
Droppings, manurial value of, 39 
Dryer. Buttner and Meyer, 181-187 
' Mackensen, 179, 180 
prize for a, 173. 
steam, 189-191 
Thiesen, 191 
Dryers, objectionable features of, 187, 

188 
Drying beet leaves, 104, 105. 
plant, cost of a, 188, 189' 
utilization of lost heat for, 177 
waste gases foi", 176 
Dry matter, definition of, 357 

EISBKN, rations for milch cows, 
recommended by, 153-155 
Emmerling's method of estimating the 
nutritive value of a forage made 
with molasses, 300 
Energy, definition of, 357 
Ether extract, 357 
Excretion and nutrition, 362-366 
Experiments, comparative, 69-79 

in feeding beets to cows and sheep 
in th« United States, 79-93 

FARM animals, table for computing 
rations for, 319-330 
conveyance of cossettes to, 140 
molasses combinations made at 

the, 292, 293 
preparation of blood-molasses fod- 
der on the, 286 
Farms, American, question of labor 

on, 34, 35 ' 

Fat and protein, less proportion be- 
tween, 349 
starch, factor between, 54 
equivalents for 100 parts of, 53 



INDEX. 



379 



Fat, formation of, theoretical consider- 
ations relative to the, 9-12 
importance of, 4 

influence of the carbohydrates on 
formation of,10- 
12 
temperature of the 
stable, on the 
formation of, 10 
nutrients that supply the greater 
part of, 9 
Fattening, essentials in, 16, 17 

idea of the progress of, by the 

droppings, 21 
sheep, 49-51 
steers, essentials for success in, 

20, 21 
successful, requisites for, 17, 18 
Fatty substances, 357-359 

digestibility of, 348, 349 
Fay and Frederikson, experiments of, 

246 
Feeding according to records, 34 

advantages of dried cossettes in, 

194 
and fattening young steers and 

cattle, 9-21 
appliances for sheep, 46 
beet leaf, 110, 111 

objections to, 111, 112 
pulps, dangers of, 143, 144 
beets to cattle, 64-117 

cows and sheep, experi- 
ments in, in the United 
States, 79-93 
cattle with sugar beets and resid- 
uum cossettes, early prejudice 
in the United States against, 
210-231 
continued, with cossettes, 148 
cows, 33-38 
difficulties in, 33, 34 
dried cossettes, precautions in, 

200-202 
early, of beet leaves, and mistakes 

made in, 96 
empirical systems of, 38 
excessive, 33 

fresh and siloed sugar beet resid- 
uum, 118-172 
general, sugar for, 309, 310 
milch cows, 21-31 
molasses diluted and combined 
for, 254, 255 
for, 232-257 
manner of, 239 
periods of, 17, 18 



Feeding regular, importance of, for 
cows, 6 
regularity in, 60 
sheep, 45-51 

space, requisite, and other essen- 
tials for sheep, 48, 49 
standards, 3, 4, 317, 318 
stuffs, digestive nutrients in stated 
amounts of the more com- 
mon, 319-330 
nitrogenous, classification of, 
362 
sugar beet leaves and tops, 93-117 
summer, 34 
lime of, 33 
value of beet tops for, 220 

cossettes, 141 
water in, 35 

with peat molasses, early experi- 
ments with, 261, 262 
seed stalks and seed, 117 
sugar, 301-316 
the view of producing milk 

and butter, 147, 148 
the view to butter production, 
34 
working animals, theoretical con- 
siderations of, 52-57 
Feeds and rations, 26 

concentrated, influence of, upon 

digestion, 344, 345 
influence of, upon butter and 
^milk, 26-28 
purchasing of, 62, 63 
slightly mildewed or tainted, 

utilization of, 296 
sprinkled with molasses and 
heated under pressure, 272, 273 
varied, 16 
Fermentation, 359 

in the preparation of rations, 68,69 
Fertilizer, molasses as a, 296-298 
Fertilizers, definition of, 359 
Fibre, digestibility of, 349-352 
Fibrin, 359 

of the blood, elimination of the, 
283, 284 
Flesh formation, theoretical consider- 
ations, respecting, 11-14 
Flour, dark feeding, digestible nutri- 
ents of, 325 
low grade, digestible nutrients of, 
325, 326 
Fodder, blood-molasses, preparatioii 
of. on the farm, 286 
coarse, varying digestibility of, 
when fed with roots, 348 



380 



INDEX. 



Fodder components, coefficients of di- 
gestibility for, 342 
corn, digestible nutrients of, 319 
green corn vs. sugar beets for 

cattle feed. 76-78 
maceration of, 69 
soft leaf, 102 _ 
Fodders, caloric basis of estimation 
of, 62 _ 
commercial value of, 61 
constituents of, 2, 3 
empirical modes of estimation of 

value of. 61 
mixing cossettes with other, 152, 

153 
money modes of calculating the 

value of, 61, 62 
purchase of, 39 
soiling, digestible nutrients of, 

319 
steaming or cooking of. 65-68 
Food consumption, influence of water 

upon, 35, 36 
Forage and semi-sugar beets, compar- 
ative yield of, 75 
definition of, 359 
digestible, diluted followed by 
concentrated molasses for, 255- 
257 
peat-molasses, composition of, 261 
Forages, molasses, comjjosition of, 251 
France, comparative experiments in, 
between beets and pulp, 69, 70 
composition of peat used in, 264 
possibilities of molasses feeding 

in, 234 

practical comparative experiments 

in feeding molasses in, 248-250 

surface built silos as used in, 170 

Frederiksen's method of preparing a 

blood-molasses feed, 282 
Friihling and Schultz, results obtained 

by, in pressing cossettes, 124 
Fuel value, definition of, 359 

GASES, waste, for drying, 176 
Gastric juice, 359 
Germany, experiments in feeding with 
molasses in, 250, 251 
general use of molasses for feeding 

in, 233 
results of beet leaf feeding in, 114 
siloing of beet leaves in, 101 
what residuum cossette feeding 
means in, 156 
Germs, definition of, 359 
Gestation, definition of, 359 



Gird, Mr., experiments of, 215-217 
Glucose, 359 

amount of. that disappears in the 

blood, 302 
and rice-flour molasses combina- 
tion, 272 
Gluten feed, digestible nutrients of, 327 
meal, digestible nutrients of, 327, 

328 
meals and gluten feeds, 359, 360 
Glycogen, 360 
Glycose, 360 

Goats, experiments upon, 31 
Goessmann, Dr., on sugar beet feed- 
ing, 80 
Grafton farm. Alma, Mich., experi- 
ments at the, 226, 227 
Grain, digestible nutrients of, 323, 324 
Gram, the, 360 

Grandeau, Prof., experiments of, in 
feeding horses, 314- 
316 
experiments of, in feed- 
ing horses with mo- 
lasses, 241-243 
Grand Island, Neb., experience of, 222 
Grass, Hungarian, digestible nutrients 

of. 320 
Grasses, mixed, and clover, digestible 

nutrients of. 321 
Green corn and sugar beets, plant foods 
absorbed by, 77 
fodder vs. sugar beets for cattle 
feed, 76-78 
Grouven, experiments of, in siloing 

leaves, 101 
Gullet, definition of the, 360 
Gums, 360 

Guttmann, A., on molasses feeding, 
272, 273 

HADMEESLEBEN, Germany, ex- 
periments in feeding sheep at, 
207, 208 
Hay and dried cossettes, comparative 
analysis of, 192 
straw, digestible nutrients of, 
321-323 
straw and molasses, 275, 276 
Heat, lost, utilization of, for drying, 

177, 178 
Hectare, the, 360 
Heifers and bulls, experimental sugar 

rations for, 313, 314 
Hemoglobin, 370 

Hennelaerg and Stohmann's experi- 
ments, 27 



INDEX. 



381 



Henneberg's experiments upon sheep, 

52 
Henry, Prof., on dairying based on 
maternity of the cow, 23 
on quarters for sheep, 48 
on steer fattening, 20. 21 
Herbivorous, definition of, 360 
Hermstadt, early suggestion of mo- 
lasses as a fodder by, 232 
Herzfeld , analysis of sugar beet leaves 

and tops by, 94, 95 
Holstein heifer and short-horn cow, 
results obtained by feeding a, on 
beets and on potatoes, 89 
Hominv chop, digestible nutrients of, 

328 " 
Hoppe on molasses feeding, 257 
Horses and mules, rations for, 151 

beneficial effects upon, when fed 

with cossettes, 208, 209 
broken down, ration for, 243 
experimental rations fed to, 315 
fed with molasses, work performed 

by, 243 
feeding of, with blood molasses, 
284, 285 
molasses, 241-244 
sugar, 314-316 
peat-molasses to, 266, 267 
results of rations as to work and 
weight fed to, 315 
Hungarian grass, digestible nutrients 
of, 320 
hay, digestible nutrients of, 321 
Hydraulic pressing, 360 
Hydroscopic, definition of, 360 
Hygienic conditions, 5 

INTESTINAL complications, pos- 
sible, through peat-molasses feed- 
ing, 262, 263 
Intestines, definition of, 360 
Invert sugar, 360 
Iowa, experiments in, 230, 231 

experiment station, experiments 
at the, 88-90 

JAFFA and Leroy Anderson on cos- 
sette feeding from a California 
point of view, 219, 220 
Jorss, experiments of, in feeding 
horses, 243 

KILOGKAM, the, 360 
Kilogrammeter, the, 360, 361 
Kilometer, the. 361 



Kjeldahl method of estimating the 

total nitrogen, 298 
Kluseraann press, 124—127 
Kiihn's experiments, 10, 31 

LABOR on American farms, ques- 
tion of, 34, 35 
Lactic acid, 361 

fermentation of cossettes, 161, 162 
Lallouette press, 134-136 
Lamb feeding, 45, 46 
Lambs, death rate of, 48 

experiments in feeding, 92, 93 

sucking of, 51 

value of potatoes and roots for 

fattening, 90, 91 
water drunk by, during fattening, 
36 
Lauchstadt, Germany, experiments at, 

250, 251 
Lead in sugar beet pulp, 214 
Leaf composition, relation of beet to, 
115, 116 
feeding, early, and mistakes made 

in, 96 
fodder, soft, 102 
keeping, 97, 98 

general method of, 97 
stripping, 95, 96 
Leaves and tops, beet, average crop of, 
96 
harvesting the crop 
of, 96, 97 
sugar beet, composition 
of, 94, 95 
feeding of, 93- 
117 
beet, acidulated, 103, 104 

and other substances in silo, 

100, 101 
compressing of. in silos, 98 
faulty siloing of, 100 
transformation of, in silos and 
losses, 99, 100 
siloed beet, analysis of, 99 
composition of, 98 
Leduc's beet steaming pits, 66-68 
Legrand, Simon, experiments by, in 

feeding diflfusion pulp, 152 
Legumin, 361 
Lehmann's mode of washing leaves, 

102, 103 
Levulose, 361 
Liebscher, experience of, 166 

researches of, 163 
Lime, 361 

addition of, to cossettes, 141, 142 



382 



INDEX. 



Lime, influence of, upon the cellular 
texture, 175 
mixing of, with cossettes, 138 
phosphate, 361 
Linseed meal, digestible nutrients of, 
328 
new process, 361 
old process, 367 
Liter, the, 361 
Live stock, rations for, 209 

weight, cost of, per pound, 19 
Lymph, 361 

MACEKATION of fodder, 69 
Mackensen dryer, 179, 180 
Maercker and Morgen. researches of, 
194 
on early chemical changes during 

siloing, 163 
on feeding all the molasses from 
a given area of land, 294, 295 
Maercker' s method of facilitating cos- 

sette pressing, 137 
Malt sprouts, digestible nutrients of. 

326, 327 
Mangels and sugar beets compared, 70- 
74 
plant food taken 
up by, 73 
silage and beets, comparative feed- 
ing value of, for cows, 92 
Manoury method of facilitating cos- 

sette pressing, 137, 138 
Manure, value of beet tops for, 220, 221 
Manurial value of droppings, 39 
Meals, order of, 5 
Mehay mode of preparing acidulated 

beet leaves, 103, 104 
Meter, the, 361 
Methane, 361 

Michigan, cossette drying in, 228, 229 
State College Experiment Station, 
experiments at the, 226-229 
Microbes in rotten pulp, 146 

means of destroying, 144, 145 
Micro-organisms, 361 
Milch cow feeding, 21-31 

general remarks on, 
21-23 
cows, calculation of rations for, 
38-45 
comparison of corn silage and 

roots for, 81, 82 
composition of one hundred 

rations for, 40 
experiments in feeding of, 
with liquid molasses, 256 



Milch cows, feeding of, with molasses, 
239-241 
peat-molasses to, 267 
rations for, 153-155 
sorts of, 23. 24 
Milk and butter, feeding with the view 
of producing, 147, 148 
influence of feeds upon, 
26-28 
milking, considerations about, 

24,25 
weight of cows, influence of 
water in ration on, 196 
average daily yield of, with and 

without beets in ration, 86 
comparative analyses of, when 
different beet products were fed, 
203 
cream and butter, comparative 
value of sugar beets and pota- 
toes in the production of. 88-90 
difference in the quantity and 

composition of, 24 
effect of albumin on, 29 
elaboration of, from the colos- 
trum, 28, 29 
experiments in the fermentation 

of, 241 
flavor of, 28 

flow, influence of the temperature 
of water on, 36, 37 
of, 30, 31 
from cows fed on fresh or dried 

cossettes, composition of, 202 
glands, effect of protein on, 29 
globules, 29 

influence of sugar upon, 314 
molasses favorable to the produc- 
tion of, 240, 241 
production, increase in, by soured 

cossettes, 154 
quantity and quality of, 29 
relative values of silage and field 
beets in the production of, 83-88 
satisfactory secretion of, 29 
sugars, 29 

theoretical considerations 28-31 
total produced and gain and loss 
in weight, by silage and beets, 
85 _ 
true basis for the sale of, 24, 25 
Mill products, digestible nutrients of, 

324-326 
Mineral elements, influence of, upon 
the flow of milk, 27, 28 
substances in dried cossettes, 197 
Minnesota, experiments in, 230 



INDEX. 



383 



Moecker agronomic station, experi- 
ments at the, 2t53 
Molasses, albumin not contained in, 
236 
and brewers' grains, 277, 278 

by-fodder, facilitation of the 
absorption of the, by boil- 
ing water, 271, 272 ' 
dried cossette combinations, 
analyses of. 260 
mixtureof,258,260 
oat flour combination, 268 
palm oil combinations, 278- 
280 
analyses of, 279 
potato pulp, 277 
straw combination, 276, 277 
sugar, comparison between, 
312 
antiseptic action of, 281 
beneficial effects of, 248 
cakes, Vaury's, composition of, 292 
combinations, keeping of. 290 
made at the farm, 292, 293 
varied. 251, 252 
composition of, 236 
cossette combination, 258-300 

average composition 
of, 259. 260 
preparation of, in difi'usion 

battery, 259 
Wusterhagen's method of 
preparing, 258 
diluted and combined for feeding, 
254, 255 
followed by concentrated, for 
digestible forage. 255-257 
dishonest dealings in, 289, 290 
feeding, A. Guttmann on, 272, 
273 
all the, from a given area of 

land. 294, 295 
desirable limits in, 252. 253 
early experiments in, 232, 233 
experiments in, in Germany, 
250, 251 
of Ed. T. Waters with, 
308, 309 
horses with, 241-244 
increasing popularity of, in 
Austro-Hungary. 233, 234 
milch cows with, 239-241 
pernicious efiects of, 247, 248 
pigs with, 246. 247 
possibilities of, in France, 234 
sheep with, 244 
steers with, 244-246 



Molasses feeds, analysis of, 298-300 
classification of, 254 
sprinkled with, and heated 
under pressure, 272, 273 
fodder, German patent for pre- 
paring, 271, 272 
forage made at the factory, 290- 

292 
forages, composition of, 251 

rivalry among manufacturers 
of, 235, 236 
for feeding, 232-257 
general use of, for feeding, in 

Germany. 233 
influence of, on the organism of 
animals, 248 
upon the production of 
milk, 240, 241 
liquid, experiments in feeding 

milch cows with, 256, 257 
manner of feeding, 239 
mixing appliances, 293, 294 

of, with pulp, 167 
money value of, 253, 254, 285 
nutritive value of, 248 
oxen fattened with. 249 
percentage, estimation of, 299 
pliysiological influences of, 241 
practical comparative experiments 
in feeding of, in France, 248- 
250 
rations, various, analysis of, 294 
varying for different animals, 

requisite keeping qualities of, 

288, 289 
solid, preparation of, 288 
use of, as a fertilizer, 296-298 
utilization in the United States, 
importance of, 235 
of, one of the essentials of 
profitable sugar making, 
234 
various uses of, 295 
Money value of molasses, 253, 254 
Morgen, experiments by, 165 

investigations of, on the digesti- 
bility of cossettes, 199, 200 
researches of, 161, 162 
Moss molasses combination, 270, 271 
Mucous, definition of. 361 
Mules and horses, rations for, 151 
Miiller's method of analyzing molasses 
feeds, 299, 300 
facilitating cossette 
pressing, 137 



384 



INDEX. 



NARKOW ration, definition of, 361 
Natanson's method of preparing 
molasses cossettes, 259 
Nebraska, feeding beet pulps in, 221- 

226 
New Mexico, experiments in. 230 
New process linseed meal, 361 
New York, experiments in, 229, 230 
Nicholson, Prof. , on pulp feeding, 223 
Nitrates, 366 
Nitrogen-free extract. 366 

crude fibre and fat, 
relation between 
digestibility of, 
351 
digestibility of, as 
determined b y 
water extraction, 
352 
Kjeldahl's method of estimating, 
298 
Nitrogenous elements of the animal's 
body, 337, 338 
feeding stuffs, classification of, 362 
substances, transformation of, 3 
Non-nitrogenous, definition of, 366 

elements of the animal's 
body, 338-340 
Non-sugar, definition of, 367 
Nutrients, digestible, in stated amounts 
of the more common feeding stuffs, 
319 330 
Nutrition and excretion, 362-366 
Nutritive ratio, 367 

OAT-FLOUR and molasses combina- 
tion, 268 
Oat straw, digestible nutrients of, 324 
Oats and peas, digestible nutrients of, 
319 
digestible nutrients of, 324 
for slieep, 50 
Ohio experiment station, experiments 

in feeding at the, 83-86 
Oil cake, use of in feeding, early op- 
position to, 307 
meal, 367 
Old pro(!ess linseed meal, 367 
Omasom, the, 367 
Oregon, experiments in, 230 
Organic matter, definition of, 367 
Osmose, 367 
Osmotic action , 367 
Osteomalacia, 146 
Ox, absorption of water by an, 149 
Oxalic acid, 367 

influence of, 112-114 



Oxalic acid, loss of, in drying beet 

leaves, 108 
Oxen and cows, working, 56, 57 

experimental rations fed to, 204 
fattening of. with molasses, 249 
working, feeding of with molasses, 
244-246 
peat-molasses to, 267 
rations for, 150, 151, 209 
Oxnard, experiments at, 217, 218 

PALM oil and molasses combina- 
tions, 278-280 
and molasses combinations, 

analyses of. 279 
meal and molasses, forage 
of, 243 
Paunch, 367 
Pea meal, 368 

Peanut shell molasses combination, 
273-275 
ration of, 274 
shells combined with residuum 
beet molasses, composition 
of, 274 
composition of, 273, 274 
Pearl farm, Mich., experiments at 

the, 227. 228 
Peas and barley, digestible nutrients 
of, 319 
oats, digestible nutrients of, 
319 
digestible nutrients of, 324 
Peat and molasses, superiority of, to 
bran and molasses, 262 
comparison of bran with, 270 
composition of, 264 
digestibility of. 263. 264 
-molasses combinations, varied, 
266 
combination. Toury, compo- 
sition of, 265 
conclusions as to the value of, 

for feeding, 264-266 
difference in opinion as to the 

value of, for feeding, 264 
feeding, early expei'iments 
with, 261, 262 
of, to horses, 266, 267 
of, to milch cows. 267 
possible intestinal com- 
plications through, 
162, 263 
working oxen and cattle 
with, 267 _ 
forage, composition of. 261 
keeping qualities of, 290 



INDEX. 



385 



Peat-molasses, pigs fed with, 268 
Pea-vine straw, digestible nutrients of, 

322 
Pectic substances, 368 
Pellet and Lelavandier on silos, 157 
Pennsylvania Experiment Station, ex- 
periments at the, 91 , 92 
Pentosanes, 368 
Peptones, 368 

Petermann on chemical changes dur- 
ing prolonged siloing, 164 
Petry-Hecking dryer, 180, 181 
Pfeiffer compressed air, mode for em- 
ploying the difl'usors, 176 
Phosphates, 368 

precipitated, addition of, to ration, 
247 
Phosphoric acid. 368 

addition of, to cossettes, 

141, 142 
digestibility of, 352, 353 
Pigs, feeding of, with blood molasses, 
284, 285 
molasses. 246, 247 
seed stalks and 
seed, 117 
peat-molasses to. 268 
sugar to, 311, 312 
opinions respecting sugar for, 312 
ration of, 151, 152 
Plant food taken up by mangels and 
sugar beets, 73 
foods, 368 

absorbed by sugar beets and 
green corn, 77 
Postelt's mode of obtaining a soft fod- 
der, 102 
Potassic salts, 370 

Potatoes and beets, comparison be- 
tween, 88-90 
roots, value of, for fat- 
tening lambs. 90, 91 
sugar beets, comparative 
value of, in the pro- 
duction of milk, cream 
and butter, 88-90 
beets and mangels, comparative 
results obtained by feeding 
lambs with, 91 
digestible nutrients of, 320 
pulp and molasses, 277 
pulp of, 210 

results obtained by feeding a short- 
horn cow and a Holstein heifer 
on, 89 
Press, Bergreen, 131-134 
cone cossette, 129-131 



Press, Klusemann. 124-127 
Lallouette. 134-136 
Selwig and Lange, 127-129 
Pressed cossettes, 370 
Presses, cossette, 122 
Proebent's experiments in beet leaf 

drving, 109 
Proteids, 370 
Protein, 368-370 

amount of, decomposed from the 

body, 12, 13 
and fat, best proportion between, 

349 
co-efficient of digestibility of, 346 
consumption, influence of water 

upon, 36 
crude, digestibility of, 345, 346 
digestible, amount of, needed, 30 

in molasses, 236 
effect of on the milk glands, 29 
mechanical equivalent of one kilo- 
gram of, 55 
Pulp and beets compared, 69, 70 

combination in the animal ration, 

7. 8 
feeding, successful introduction 

of, in the United States, 215 
malady, 146 

mixing of, with molasses, 167 
or cossette contracts, 138, 139 
Pulps, 370 

rotten, microbes in, 146 
saturation of, with alcoholic 
vapors, 144 
Putrefaction, loss by, 161 

RADIATION, 370 
Eamm. investigations of, in feed- 
ing milch cows with liquid 
molasses, 256, 257 
Ration, 370 

chest measurements for weight of, 

58 
for an animal doing work, 56, 57 
bulls, 151 
pigs. 151. 152 
working animals, 6 
formula for composing a, 55, 56 
in summer, 60 

manner of calculating a, 43-45 
narrow, 361 
standard, adopted, 41 
variable, 5 
variation in. 59, 60 
with and without beets, average 
dailv vield of milk, produced 
by, 86" 



386 



INDEX. 



Rations and feeds, 26 
appetizing, 60 
cost of, 63 

distribution of. 60. 61 
excessively diluted, objections to, 

37 
experimental, fed to cows, 205, 206 
fed to horses, 315 
oxen, 204 
sheep, 207, 208 
results of, 205 

sugar, for bulls and heifers, 
313, 314 
faulty, 41, 42 
fed to horses, results of, as to 

work and weight, 315 
fermentation in the preparation 

of. 68, 69 
for farm animals, table for com- 
puting, 319-330 
live stock, 209 
milch cows. 153-155 
mules and horses, 161 
sheep, 151 

stall-fed animals. 0, 7 
working oxen. 150, 151 
general, of blood-molasses, 286 
in general, 57-61 
molasses, analyses of, 294 
rules for, proposed by the Kew 
York Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 63 
special tables for computing, 41 
standard. 58, 59 
basis of, 58, 59 
variation in. 59 
suppositious, for dairy cows, com- 
positions of. 43, 44 
varied by addition of different beet 
products, comparative nutritive 
values of. 2(i3 
varying molasses for different ani- 
mals. 253 
Recticulum. 370 
Red clover hav, digestible nutrients 

of. 322 
Rennet or abomasom, 370 
Residuum, 370 

cossettes. digestibility of, 155 

siloing of. 156-172 
dried, composition and appearance 

of, 191 
importance of keeping clean, 140 
mixing of the, with an antiseptic, 
167 
Roots and corn silage for milch cows, 
comparison of, 81, 85 



Roots and potatoes, value of, for fat- 
tening lambs, 90, 91 
tubers, digestible nutrients of, 
320, 321 
varying digestibility of coarse 
fodder when fed with, 348 
Roughage, 370 

combination of, with concentrates, 
22 
Ruminants, definition of, 370 
Rutabaga and sugar beet, comparative 
analysis of a, 74 
comparison of sugar beets with, 74 
Rye bran, digestible nutrients of, 326 
digestible nutrients of, 323 

SACCHAROSE, definition of, 370 
Saliva, definition of, 370 
Salt. 37, 38 

beneficial effect of, 27. 28 
common, combination of, with 
pulps, 144, 145 
mixing of, with pulp, 147 
digestibility of, 353 
importance of, 4 
in steer feeding, 19, 20 
Schraeder apparatus for preparing 

blood-molasses fodder, 286 
Scrub cattle, feeding of, with cos- 
settes. 8 
Scums, definition of, 371 
Seed stalks aiid seed beet, feeding 

with, 117 
Selwig and Lange press, 127-129 
Semi-sugar beet, 75 
Serum, definition of, 371 
Sesame and peanut-molasses combina- 
tion, composition of. 274, 275 
Shearing of sheep, influence of, upon 

milk, 46, 47 
Sheep and cows, experiments in feed- 
ing beets to, in the United 
States. 79 93 
characteristics, 47, 48 
classification of, for fattening, 49 
comparative increase in weight of, 
fed with tankard and sugar- 
beets. 72 
difference in fodder to be given 

to, 50 
experimental rations fed to, 207 
experiments in feeding, 82, 83 

of, with beet 
leaves, 115 
upon, 70 
with, 195 
fattening, 49-51 



INDEX. 



387 



Sheep, fattening of, with beet cossettes, 
142' 
feeding, 45-51 

ajapliances, 46 

general considerations of, 45. 

46 
of, with molasses, 244 
grazing. 49 

Henneberg's experiments upon, 52 
oats for, 50 

raising in the United States, im- 
pulse to, by beet pulp utiliza- 
tion, 45 
rations for. 151, 209 
relative value of sugar-beets for. 91 
requisite feeding space and other 

essentials for, 48. 49 
selection, importance of. 49 
shearing of. influence of, upon 

milk. 46, 47 
time for birth of, 30 
Shelter, 31 
Shipping facilities, needs for. 19 

fattened steers, preparations for, 

. 19, 20 

Short-horn cow and Holstein heifer, 

results obtained by feeding a, on 

beets and on potatoes. 89 

Siekel's method of facilitating cossette 

pressing. 137 
Silage and beets, comparison as to the 
cost of feeding with. 87 
total milk produced, and 
gain and loss in weight 
by, 85 
field beets, relative values of, 
in the production of milk, 
83-88 
beets and mangels, comparative 

feeding value of, for cows, 92 
vs. beets, showing feed refused, 84 
Silo, beet leaves and other substances 
in. 100, 101 
building a, 157 
'■ dug-out" type of. 170 
formed by excavating hillside. 169 
wood built. 169 
Siloed and dried cossettes, comparison 
between, 192-194 
beet leaves, analysis of, 99 
composition of, 98 
Siloing, earlv chemical changes dur- 
ing, 163 
faulty, of beet leaves. 100 
of beet leaves in Germany. 101 
one acre of corn, cost of, 87 
precautionary measures in, 166 



Siloing, prolonged, chemical changes 
during, 164 
residuum cossettes, 156-172 
surface, 167-171 

transformation of cossettes during, 
160-167 
Silos, compressing leaves in, 98 
definition of, 371 
dimensions of, 157 
elongated, 157 
filled, temperature in, 162 
filling of, with beet cossettes, 159, 

160 
for reducing cossettes, 156-159 
lined with brick, 157 
paving the bottom of, 158 
principal centers for change in, 163 
surface built, as used in France, 

170 
transformation of leaves in and 

losses. 99. 100 
underground. 171, 172 
Skim milk, digestible nutrients of, 330 
Sodic chiorid, 371 
Soiling fodder, digestible nutrients of, 

319 
Sour cossettes, 371 
Soxhlet's experiments, 15 
Stable feeding and exercise, 34 

influence of the temperature of 
the, on the foi-mation of fat, 10 
temperature of, 5, 31 
Stables, 32 

Stalks of beet seed, 371 
Stall-fed animals, rations for, 6, 7 
Stall-feeding, negative results of, 7 
Standard Cattle Co., Ames, Neb., state- 
ment by the, 222, 223-225 
ration adopted, 41 
rations. 58, 59 

basis of, 58, 59 
vai'iation in, 59 
Starch, 371 

and fat, factor between. 54 
-combustion in the body, heat re- 
quired for, 149 
Steam dryer, 189-191 

drying, 189-191 
Steaming or cooking of fodders, 65-68 
process, couibined with fermenta- 
tion, 66-68 
Steer fattening, essentials for success 
in, 20, 21 
feeding, requisites for success in, 
17 
salt in, 19, 20 
Steers, daily weighing of, 16 



388 



INDEX. 



Steers, fattened, preparations for ship- 
ping, 19, 20 
feeding and fattening of, with beet 
residuum in western States, 
14 
of, with molasses, 244-246 
kinds of, to feed, 18, 19 
rations for, 209 _ 

relative value of sugar beets for, 91 
young, and cattle feeding and 
fattening, 9-21 
Stimulants, 371 
Stohmann's experiments, 13 
Straw and hay, digestible nutrients of, 
321-323 
molasses combination, 276, 
277 
mixing cossettes with, 166 
Stutzer, analysis of siloed beet leaves 

by, 99 
Sucrose, 371, 372 

Sugar and molasses, comparison be- 
tween, 312 
beet and rutabaga, comparative 
analysis of a, 74 
cossettes, value of, 139, 140 
leaves and tops, composition 
of, 94, 95 
feeding of, 93- 
117 
digestible nutrients of, 
329 
pulp, digestible nutrients of, 
329 
lead in, 214 
residuum, advantages of, 17 
cossettes, early appreci- 
ation of the value of, 
118 
fresh and siloed, feeding 
of, 118-172 
- beets and green corn, plant foods 
absorbed by, 77 
mangels compared, 70- 

74 
potatoes, comparative 
value of, in the pro- 
duction of milk, cream 
and butter, 88-90 
residuum, early preju- 
dice in the United 
States against feeding 
cattle with, 210-231 
tankard compared, 71 
compared with rutabagas, 74 
more profitable than clover 
hay for cattle feeding, 79 



Sugar beets, relative value of, for steers 
and sheep, 91 
combinations, special, 312 
destruction of, in the blood, 301, 

302 
effect of, on animals, 309 
feeding, advantages of, to the 
breeder, 303 
digestive complications due 

to, 310 
early arguments for, 304 
economic considerations of, 

312. 313 
European, difficulties to con- 
tend with in, 315 
experiments in, 305, 306 
horses with, 314-316 
of, to calves, 310, 311 

cattle in the early part 
oflast century, 303-309 
pigs, 311, 312 
practical suggestions in early 
discussions on, 306- 
309 
tests of, upon men, 302 
with, 301-316 
for general feeding, 309, 310 
for pigs, opinions respecting, 312 
influence of, upon milk, 314 
kft in the residuum, 121 
making, profitable, utilization of 
molasses one of the essentials 
of, 234 
manufacturer, main object of the, 

120 
rations, experimental, for bulls 
and heifers, 313, 314 
Sugars, 372 

Sulphuric acid, anhydrous, 332 
Summer feeding, 34 
Surface siloing, 167-171 
Swine, feeding of, Avith molasses, 250 

TABLE for computing rations for 
farm animals, 319-330 
Tables for computing rations, 41 
Tankard and sugar beets, comparative 
increase in 
weight of 
sheep fed 
with, 72 
comparison of, 
71 
Thiesen dryer, 191 
Timothy, digestible nutrients of, 321 
Toury peat-molasses combination, com- 
position of, 265 



INDEX. 



389 



Tubers and roots, digestible nutrients 
of, 320, 321 

UDDEK, development of, 29 
United States, early prejudice in 
the, against feeding 
cattle with sugar 
beets and residuum 
cossettes, 210-231 

experiments in feeding 
beets to cows and 
sheep in the, 79-93 

importance of molasses 
utilization in the, 255 

impulse by beet-pulp 
utilization to sheep 
raising in the, 45 

successful introduction 
of pulp feeding in 
the, 215 
Utah, experiments in, 230 

VAURY molasses cakes, composition 
of, 292 
wheat flour molasses combination, 
287, 288 
Vogel, experiments by, on sheep, 195 
Voit's experiments. 52 
Volkmann, researches of, 195 

WALTEK and Gerber, experiments 
in the fermentation of milk by, 
241 
Washing beet leaves, 102, 103 
Water, 16 

absorption of, by an ox, 149 
drunk and its influence, 36, 37 
heat needed to evaporate, 
194-196 
eflfect of, when given in excess, 37 
excess of, in residuum, 121 
good, essentials of, 37 
in beet pulps, 149, 150 
in feeding, 35 



Water in ration, influence of, on milk 
and weight of cows, 196 
influence of the temperature of, on 
the flow of milk, 36, 37 
of, upon food consumption, 
35, 36 
protein consumption, 

36 
the milk flow, 36 
loss of, per diem, 37 
role of, 4, 5 
Waters, Ed. T., experiments of, with 

molasses feeding, 308, 309 
Watsonville, Cal., experiments at, 218 
Weisbeck, experiments of, 195, 196 
Weiske's experiments. 31 
Werner and Pfleiderer's molasses-mix- 
ing appliance, 293 
Wheat bran, 372 

digestible nutrients of, 325 
-molasses, comparison of, 
with corn germs, 269 
digestible nutrients of. 323 
flour-molasses combination, 

Vaury's, 287, 288 
middlings, 372 

digestible nutrients of, 325 
molasses combination, 268, 269 
residuums, 372 

straw, digestible nutrients of, 324 
Wide ratio, 372 

Wisconsin experiment station, experi- 
ments in feeding sheep at the, 82, 83 
Wolff on flow of milk. 30, 31 
Wolff's tables, objections to, 57 
Wool and beet cossettes, 47 
Working animals, ration for, 6 

theoretical consideration 
of feeding, 52-57 
oxen and cows, 56, 57 
Wusterhagen dryer for beet leaves, 

107-109 
Wusterhagen' s method of preparing 
molasses cossettes, 258 



OCT 25 1902 



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